Orthopaedics I Flashcards
Clinical features of acute [3] and chronic osteomyelitis [3] ?
Acute osteomyelitis:
- Pain is the most common symptom
- Warm and erythema
- Systemic symptoms
Chronic osteomyelitis:
- Tends to present only with local symptoms such as swelling, erythema and pain
- Systemic symptoms such as fever are often ABSENT
- Often secondary to DM vascular injury - diabetics with ulcers >2cm2 are very likely to have osteomyelitis, even if no bone is visible
- A draining sinus tract may be seen - this is pathognomonic of osteomyelitis
-
In patients with a history of intravenous drug use, what organism is the most common cause for osteomyelitis?
Salmonella spp.
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
In patients with a history of intravenous drug use, what organism is the most common cause for osteomyelitis?
Salmonella spp.
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
Investigations for osteomyeltis? [+]
Serology:
- Acute = raised WCC / CRP
- Chronic = often has normal WCC
- Blood cultures are positive in around half of cases
X-ray:
- Acute = first two weeks of infection may show normal
- Soft tissue swelling, osteopaenia (bone thinning), bone destruction, periosteal reaction (changes to the surface of the bone), endosteal scalloping and new bone apposition
MRI:
- Best imaging for dx
- Sequestrum: Refers to a dead piece of devitalised bone that has been separated (i.e. sequestered) due to necrosis from the surrounding bone.
- Involucrum: New growth of periosteal bone around a sequestrum.
- Cloaca: An opening in an involuvcrum that allows the internal necrotic bone and pus to discharge out.
Label A-C
Sequestrum: Refers to a dead piece of devitalised bone that has been separated (i.e. sequestered) due to necrosis from the surrounding bone.
Involucrum: New growth of periosteal bone around a sequestrum.
Cloaca: An opening in an involuvcrum that allows the internal necrotic bone and pus to discharge out.
Describe the difference between sequestrum vs involucrum? [1]
A sequestrum is the necrotic bone which has become walled off from its blood supply and can present as a nidus for chronic osteomyelitis.
An involucrum is a layer of new bone growth outside existing bone seen in osteomyelitis.
Describe the treatment for osteomyelitis [3]
Antibiotics +/- surgical debridement forms the mainstay of management.
Abx:
- Should be held until bone cultures are completed
- Guided by microbiology
- BNF: flucloxacillin for 6 weeks; possibly with rifampicin or fusidic acid added for the first 2 weeks
- Chronic osteomyelitis usually requires 3 months or more of antibiotics.
- Clindamycin in penicillin allergy
- Vancomycin or teicoplanin when treating MRSA
Surgery:
- More common in non-haem. spread
- infected necrotic bone must be removed
- Irrigation & debridement - sequestrum must be eliminated from the body, or infection is likely to recur; replace dead bone and scar tissue with vascularized tissue
Describe the different causes of septic arthritis
When septic arthritis is caused by haematogenous spread it may be a result of:
Bacterial migration from a distant site
* Abscesses and wounds
* Septicaemia
Disseminated infection
* Gonorrhoea
OR
When septic arthritis is caused by direct inoculation it may be a result of:
Iatrogenic procedures
* Joint injections (e.g. steroid injections)
* Joint arthrocentesis
* Athroscopy
Traumatic injuries
* Infected wounds around the joint
* Penetrating injuries from foreign objects
Describe investigations for septic arthritis? [2]
Joint aspiration is key and should be obtained prior to antibiotics (whenever possible):
- Also decompresses joint space
- synovial fluid appearance: often yellow/green and turbid on aspiration compared to uninfected fluid which is clear and usually colourless.
- Cultures of synovial fluid in cases of gonococcal septic arthritis yield positive results in only 25% of cases.
- Synovial fluid WCC: is often raised with neutrophil predominance. WBC: >50 000 cells/mm3 with Neutrophils: >75 %
The Kocher criteria for the diagnosis of septic arthritis is [4]
The Kocher criteria for the diagnosis of septic arthritis:
* fever >38.5 degrees C
* non-weight bearing
* raised ESR
* raised WCC
Describe the management plan for septic arthritis
First: rule out sepsis
Empirical IV antibiotics should be given until the sensitivities are known. Often following are given:
* Flucloxacillin (often first-line)
* Clindamycin (penicillin allergy)
* Vancomycin (if MRSA is suspected)
* Ceftriaxone if gonorrhoea
Antibiotics are typically continued IV for 2 weeks before switching to PO if the patient is improving.
A patient presents with ?osteomyelitis. An MRI is performed.
What does the arrow point at? [1]
involucrum: formation of new bone around an area of bony necrosis
A patient presents with ?osteomyelitis. An MRI is performed.
What does the arrow point at? [1]
sequestrum: devitalized bone that serves as a nidus for infection
Describe the positions of a sequestrum vs a involucrum [2]
A sequestrum is the necrotic bone which has become walled off from its blood supply and can present as a nidus for chronic osteomyelitis.
An involucrum is a layer of new bone growth outside existing bone seen in osteomyelitis.
State causes of secondary osteoporosis [+]
Endocrine:
- DM
- Cushings
- Hyperparathyroidism
- Hyperthyroidism
- Low testosterone
Malabsorptive
- IBD
- Coeliac
COPD
CKD
Chronic liver disease
How would you differentiate osteoporosis and osteomalacia?
- presentation [2]
- investigations [1]
osteomalacia may cause generalised bone pain, tenderness and myopathy
- low Ca and PO4 serum; high ALP and PTH
Describe the treatment algorithm for osteoporosis [4]
First line: Bisphosphonates
- oral alendronate or risedronate weekly oral
- zoledronic acid - yearly infusion
- MOA: interfering with the way osteoclasts attach to bone, reducing their activity and the reabsorption of bone.
Second line: Denosumab:
- monoclonal antibody agaisnt RANK ligand, inhibits osteoclasts
- SC every 6 months
- can be used for osteoporosis in post-menopausal women or OP In men
- can be used for patients on steroids
Raloxifene
- Raloxifene is approved for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women
- selective oestrogen receptor modulator (SERM)
HRT: unopposed oestrogen or O&P
- Prevention of fracture in women at high risk. It is normally reserved for use in younger women as the side effect profile is better.
Clinical scenarios
- if a patient is deemed high-risk based on a QFracture or FRAX score they should have a DEXA scan to assess bone mineral density (BMD): if T-score of - 2.5 SD or below start bisphosphinates
- A postmenopausal woman, or a man age ≥50 has a symptomatic osteoporotic vertebral fracture: above
start treatment straight away - oral bisphosphonates are used first-line e.g. alendronate or risedronate
- following a fragility fracture in women ≥ 75 years, a DEXA scan is not necessary to diagnose osteoporosis and hence commence a bisphosphonate
Which groups are bisphosphinates CI in? [3]
Severe renal impairment (renally excreted)
Hypocalcaemia
Upper GI disorders
Smokers and dental disease should be cautioned because of jaw necrosis risk
In which patient groups is raloxifene CI In? [1]
history of venous thromboembolism or if a patient has prolonged immobilisation due to risk of VTE
Name three side effects of raloxifene [3]
Side effects include hot flushes, vaginal dryness and leg cramps.
NB: Raloxifene is a selective oestrogen receptor modulato
Name two side effects of denosumab [2]
In which patient populations is it CI In? [3]
Side effects include cellulitis and hypocalcaemia
CI in hypocalcaemia and hypersensitivity and avoided in pregnancy.
heparin
Name the clinical presentation of the hand signs of OA [5]
Heberden’s nodes (in the DIP joints)
Bouchard’s nodes (in the PIP joints)
Squaring at the base of the thumb (CMC joint)
Weak grip
Reduced range of motion
NICE CG 226: Osteoarthritis in over 16s: diagnosis and management (2022) advise a clinical diagnosis (without imaging) can be made when a patient: [3]
- Is 45 or over and
- Has activity-related joint pain and
- Has either no morning joint-related stiffness or morning stiffness that lasts no longer than 30 minutes.
Describe the medical management of OA
First line:
- NSAIDS (topical); w/ PPI. Hand: topical; Knee - topical; Hip - oral
Second line:
- oral NSAIDS
Third line - Intra-articular injections:
- corticosteroid injections for short-term pain relief in patients with moderate-to-severe knee OA and signs of local inflammation
- Hyaluronic acid (HA)
Surgery:
- Hip or knee replacement (Arthroplasty)
- Osteotomy (realignment)
NB: NICE guidance (NG 226) advise against hyaluronan injections (due to lack of evidence of efficacy), though some clinicians do use them, typically the patient must buy the medication privately.
Describe the clinical presentation of osteomalacia [+]
Musculoskeletal Symptoms:
- Bone pain: Diffuse, poorly localized pain involving the lower back, hips, pelvis, and lower extremities is a common presenting symptom. Pain is typically exacerbated by weight-bearing activities and may be relieved with rest.
- Muscle weakness - especially proximal muscle weakness
- Joint pain
Hypocalcaemia:
- Paresthesia: Patients may complain of numbness or tingling sensations in their extremities due to hypocalcemia-induced neuromuscular excitability.
- Tetany: Severe hypocalcemia can cause carpopedal spasm, Chvostek’s sign (facial muscle twitching), or Trousseau’s sign (carpopedal spasm induced by inflating a blood pressure cuff).
Extra-skeletal Manifestations
* Dental abnormalities: Defective dentin formation may lead to dental caries, enamel hypoplasia, and periodontal disease.
* Nonspecific symptoms: Fatigue, anorexia, and weight loss may be present in patients with osteomalacia.
Phenytoin
Type 2 renal tubular acidosis
Fanconi
Management of Pagets? [+]
First line: Bisphosphinates
- Alendronic acid: This is often the first choice due to its favourable side effect profile and cost-effectiveness. It is typically given orally.
- Pamidronate and Zoledronic acid: These intravenous bisphosphonates may be used in patients who cannot tolerate oral bisphosphonates
Analgesics:
- Over-the-counter analgesics like paracetamol may be sufficient for some patients, but others may require stronger analgesics such as opioids.
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be beneficial for those with associated inflammatory arthritis.
Surgery:
- Pathological fractures: These may require surgical fixation to allow for proper healing and to reduce pain.
- Severe osteoarthritis or joint destruction: Joint replacement surgery may be considered in patients with severe joint damage.
- Neurological complications: For patients with nerve compression syndromes, such as spinal stenosis, decompressive surgery may be required.
What are the non-musculoskeletal features of Paget’s disease? [3]
Skull enlargement can lead to complications such as hearing loss (most commonly), thought to be due to cochlear damage. They may also develop tinnitus because of nerve compression.
Rarely patients can develop osteosarcoma which might be suspected if their pain levels suddenly and significantly worsens.
From a cardiac perspective, patients are more likely to develop congestive heart failure, particularly if more than 40% of their skeleton is affected by the condition.
1.
What is the commonest clinical feature in Paget’s disease?
Asymptomatic in 90%
What is the rare malignant complication of Paget’s disease? [1]
Osteosarcoma
