Origins of Psychcology & Psychology as a Science

Question 1

Who is credited with the foundation of scientific psychology? and why?

Answer 1

Wundt

in 1879 he opened the first experimental lab in Germany dedicated to psychological research and as a result it began to emerge as its own discipline.

Question 2

Outline the timeline of the origins of psychology

Answer 2

1879 - Wilhelm Wundt
1900 - Psychodynamic approach 
1913 - Behaviourist approach 
1950s - Humanistic approach 
1960s - Cognitive approach 
1980s Biological approach 
2000 - Cognitive neuroscience approach

Question 3

What did Wundt study and how?

What approach did he use

Answer 3

Studies human consciousness
Introspection
Structuralism approach

Question 4

What is introspection

Answer 4

Process whereby a individual examines their inner world by consciously observing their thoughts and emotions

Question 5

What is structuralism

Answer 5

An approach to examining the structure of the mind &consciousness
by breaking it down into smaller elements
e.g., sensations or perceptions

Question 6

Which approach does this statement reflect?

Behaviour is related to chemical processes and the nervous system

How did that approach emerge?

Answer 6

Biological

Development of sophisticated technology allowed psychologists to develop an increasing understanding of the human brain

Question 7

Which approach does this statement reflect?

Interested in studying mental processes

How did that approach emerge?

Answer 7

Cognitive

Believed internal mental processes are an important area of study and they make inferences about how the mind works based on observable behaviour from scientific lab experiments

Question 8

Which approach does this statement reflect?

Free will guides behaviour & personal growth

How did that approach emerge?

Answer 8

Humanistic

Rejected views put forwards by behaviourists and psychodynamacists by saying they were to deterministic and reductionist so we should be trying to understand the person as a whole.

Question 9

Which approach does this statement reflect?

Highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind on behaviour.

Answer 9

Psychodynamic

Question 10

Which approach does this statement reflect?

Behaviour results from learning through experience.

How did that approach emerge?

Answer 10

Behaviourist

Watson & Skinner criticises the subjective nature of introspection, making it difficult to generalise from the research.
They emphasised studying observable and measurable behaviour using vigorous scientific processes in carefully controlled lab experiments

Question 11

What make Wundt’s research scientific

Answer 11

He trained Ps to give detailed observation through introspection.
He used standardised procedures and strictly controlled the environment (stimuli & tasks) when introspection took place.

Question 12

What is the main psychological approach today?

Answer 12

Cognitive neuroscience is at the forefront of psychology

It brings together cognitive and biological approached to investigate how biological structure influence mental processes.

Question 13

Define Psychology

Answer 13

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

Question 14

Define behaviour as it relates to psychology

Answer 14

Observable actions

Question 15

Define mental processes

Answer 15

Internal experiences e.g., thoughts and emotions

Question 16

Define dualism as it relates to psychology

Define monism as it relates to psychology

Answer 16

Dualism: Idea that the mind and body are separate entities that interact

Monism: Idea that the brain and mind are the same so every mental state is reducible to an identical brain state

Question 17

What are some key features of a science?

Answer 17

Having a paradigm
Empiricism 
Objectivity 
Control / Internal validity 
Hypothesis testing
Falsifiable theories
Replicability 
Predictability

Question 18

What is a paradigm

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 18

Shared set of assumptions, methods & terminology about what to study and how. Occasionally there are paradigm shifts in beliefs, but the shifts are then generally accepted beliefs by the majority.

• Psychology has agreement that the subject matter to be studied is the mind and behaviour & Most do subscribe to the scientific methods of investigation and cognitive neuroscience which is the dominant psychological paradigm today.
• However, psychology has many approaches which each tend to prefer different methods & terminology, therefore Kuhn suggests it is a pre-science, yet to find its paradigm.
• It’s possible there have just been very large paradigm shifts in psychology as not all of the approaches were dominant at the same time.
• However it can still be argued it doesn’t have its paradigm because there is still a large number of people who did not shift with the rest as would be expected in paradigm shifts.

Question 19

What is Empiricism

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 19

The view all knowledge is based on experience (data collected through direct observation) and it does not rely on argument or belief.
Empiricism has become a method of inquiry: Make theories/hypotheses/predictions about phenomena (observable things) ; Test through scientific observations and experiments to gather facts and evidence ; Predictions can then be validated or falsified on the basis of objective evidence.

Psychology uses both inductive and deductive theory and hypothesis construction however there are some aspects of psychology which have theories where hypotheses are very hard to generate. Some historical concepts within psychology remain unfalsifiable. Popper argues that no amount of positive validations can prove a theory to be true; however one piece of falsification can render it untrue. Therefore any theory has to generate a limited set of hypotheses that could be refuted if the hypotheses turned out to be false.Behaviourist and biological approaches largely meet the falsifiability criteria e.g. operant conditioning and localisation can be falsified. However there are approaches and theories which are unfalsifiable such as Humanism and psychodynamics e.g. self actualisation and the unconscious. Some psychologists have a tendency to just try to support & confirm, rather than refuting theories in professional journals (Publication bias) which makes it not very scientific (Though this happens in other sciences too, not just psychology).

Question 20

What is Objectivity

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 20

Researchers remaining totally value free and unbiased during investigation and minimising all other sources of bias.

• In Psychology controlled methods are used, double blind collection of data, operationalised variables, standardised procedures, and peer review. for example milligram was not involved in his own experiment.
• However, objectivity is harder to achieve in psychology because in order to study personal experiences a certain amount of subjectivity/infrence will be needed - this is what has led to a division of psychological approaches. (e.g., Freud was very subjective & criticised for bending evidence to fit existing theories rather than considering the evidence objectively and Zimbrdo was criticised for letting his own biases influence the experiment. Behaviourists however are very objective.

Question 21

What is Control / Internal validity

Answer 21

Controlling all extraneous variables in order to be able to establish cause (IV) and effect (DV)

• Much of psychology e.g., behaviourism and laboratory experimental are highly controlled and therefore have high internal validity
• However other areas of psychology rely on self report methods or case studies like Little Hans which are not controlled and findings are open to interpretation without clear cause and effect relationships.
  Also high levels of control sacrifice external validity, making it harder to generalise findings.

Question 22

What is hypothesis testing

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 22

A operationalised and unambiguous statement made before investigation to serve as a prediction derived from a theory. The cycle of scientific investigation is perpetuated by testing concepts, making objective observations and then refining theories.

• Some approaches/theories in psychology are easy to make hypothesis for e.g., behaviourism / behaviourism
  However others are hard to generate hypothesis for e.g. psychodynamic approach or hard to test e.g., internal mental processes like schemas or intelligence are

Question 23

What are falsifiable theories?

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 23

A good theory is one that generates testable hypotheses so research can be conducted to validate or falsify. If the theory is not supported then it can be altered. Popper argues that the best hypotheses are those which we can falsify - disprove. If we know something is not true, then we know something for sure.

• If operationalised and unambiguous hypothesis can be created and successfully tested then the theory or concept is able to be falsified e.g., Operant conditioning or milligram who falsified the ‘germans are different hypothesis’
• However areas e.g., psychodynamic approach can be hard to generate hypothesis or concepts such as self actualisation and unconscious can be hard to test meaning they are hard to either validate or falsify

Question 24

What is replicability

How does this relate to psychology as a science?

Answer 24

Can a method/findings be repeated to see if results are similar - replication established reliability, validity & generalisability of findings. If a dramatic discovery is reported, but it cannot be replicated it will not be accepted.

• Most research methods used in psychology are replicable e.g. experiments or observations (Milgram / Asch / drug trials)
• However, experimental methods can lack ecological validity due to artificial environments and the strict control that isn’t found in every day life.
  Some methods e.g., case studies (Genie / HM) are hard to replicate or are unable to be replicated due to their unethical nature (e.g., Watson & Raynor / Zimbardo)
  Also scientific laws are generalisable, but psychological explanations are often restricted because psychology studies (mostly) people, it studies (indirectly) the effects of social and cultural changes in behaviour. Behaviour changes over time, and over different situations. These factors, and individual differences, make research findings reliable for a limited time only.

Question 25

What is predictability

Answer 25

We should be aiming to be able to predict future behaviour from the findings of our research.

Question 26

Are traditional scientific methods appropriate for studying human behaviour?

Answer 26

When psychologists operationalise their IV, it is highly likely that this is reductionist, mechanistic, subjective, or just wrong.
Operationalising variables refer to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study. For example, a bio psychologist may operationalise stress as an increase in heart rate, but it may be that in doing this we are removed from the human experience of what we are studying. The same goes for causality.
Experiments are keen to establish that X causes Y, but taking this deterministic view means that we ignore extraneous variables, and the fact that at a different time, in a different place, we probably would not be influenced by X. There are so many variables that influence human
behaviour that it is impossible to control them effectively. The issue of ecological validity ties In really nicely here.
Objectivity is impossible. It is a huge problem in psychology, as it involves humans studying humans, and it is very difficult to study the behaviour of people in an unbiased fashion.
Moreover, in terms of a general philosophy of science, we find it hard to be objective because we are influenced by a theoretical standpoint (Freud is a good example of this). The observer and the observed are members of the same species; this creates problems of reflectivity.
A behaviourist would never examine a phobia and think in terms of unconscious conflict as a cause, just like Freud would never explain it as a behaviour acquired through operant conditioning.
Since psychology has many approaches and methodologies it could be argued that it is not yet a science, However with exception of psychodynamics most areas fulfil the criteria of science, with theories that are falsifiable and findings that are replicable. Perhaps what needs to be considered is not just whether it could be a science but whether it should be a science. It may be inappropriate to reduce complex behaviour down to measurable variables as we could lose the essence of what it is to be human