organization & power concepts Flashcards
normative control
govern behavior through accepted patterns of action rather than written policies and procedures. Normative control uses values and beliefs called norms, which are established standards
* Internalization of norms
* Cultural dimensions of organizations
neo-normative control
homogenizing norms are substituted by a celebration of difference, fun, and individualization
neoliberalism
market-oriented reform policies such as “eliminating price controls, deregulating capital markets, lowering trade barriers” and reducing, especially through privatization and austerity, state influence in the economy.
Pros: reduced state intervention
Cons: poorer collective health and well-being (self-sufficient)
flat organizations
Less-hierarchical organizations (note: does not necessarily mean democratic)
hard coercion
(formal control)
* Regulation, sanctions
soft coercion
(informal control)
* Socialization, norms, values
Weber’s three authority-based organizations
- Based on social precedent (ritual, rights)
- Based on charismatic elements (power of the person)
- Bureaucracy
bureaucracy
the exercise of control on the basis of knowledge. It is about rational legal hierarchical power: not the leader is important but the bureau.
scientific management perspective (Frederick Taylor)
- emphasizes organizational design, worker training for efficiency, chains of command, and division of labour
- assumption that work and organizations can be rationally or “scientifically” designed and developed
4 principles of the scientific management perspective
- Gathering of traditional knowledge of the workman: record and codify it
- Selection of the workman and his progressive development
- Bringing together the trained workman and the scientific approach
- Teamwork between management and workmen: sharing of a division of the labour
Hawthorne effect
People act differently when they now they are being studied
differentiation
there are frequent conflicts among groups in organizations with limited consensus [sub-culture perspective]
* Differentiation = the act of showing or finding difference between things that are compared
fragmentation
there is considerable ambiguity in organizations with consensus coexisting with conflict, and much change among groups.
* Fragmentation = the action or process of breaking something into small parts or of being broken up in this way
Max Weber’s 3 perspectives on bureaucracy
- Bureaucracy as an organizing principle
- Bureaucracy as a paradigm
- Bureaucracy as one type of structure
bureaucracy as an organizing principle (Weber’s perspective)
One of the three perspectives of Weber. Bureaucracy is the result of instrumental rationality
i. Instrumental rationality (most efficient way to organize, based on formal rules and procedures, which type “works” the best)
ii. Value rationality (a focus on duty and impartiality [no sides are taken], which type is “right” and legitimate)
iii. Domination (form of control)
bureaucracy as a paradigm (Weber’s perspective)
One of the three perspectives of Weber. Rigidity or flexibility of bureaucracy
* Dysfunctional paradigm (bureaucracy can create alienation, inefficiency, and rigidity)
* Flexible paradigm (can be flexible and support innovation when managed correctly)
bureaucracy as one type of structure (Weber’s perspective)
One of the three perspectives of Weber. Bureaucracy is just one form of organization among others.
* Contingency theory (determining the effectiveness of bureaucratic vs. other organizational forms)
systemic modes of power
power congealed into more enduring institutional structures;
* Domination (shaping preferences via values and ideologies)
* subjectification (power is all-encompassing)
domination
No freedom, but with more peaceable means; involves the creation of systems that appear natural or inevitable
subjectification
Use of more brute forces, no freedom; focuses on shaping the identities of organizational members
episodic modes of power
modes of influence rely upon identifiable acts that shape the behaviour of others
* Coercion (overt, visible, conflict)
* Manipulation (covert, less visible, conflict cover-up culture)
coercion
Coercion is understood as either having no choice or as having no acceptable choice; the direct exercise of power by force or authority
manipulation
the steering or influencing of the choices of others by means that might be morally problematic; relies on influence rather than force
supraindividual
of, relating to, or being an organism, entity, or complex of more than individual complexity or nature.
* It is not only the individual, there’s something at play that goes beyond the individual (this is about the employee theft)
habituation
Making decisions everyday (give idea of being in control, but we develop habits)
reciprocal typification
We start thinking about each other (role patterns start to develop if everyone keeps to habits)
legitimation
We ask the questions why from a very early age (explanations for the newcomers)
objectification
We stop asking questions and just do it (do what is expected)
agency
the ability to take action or to choose what action to take
four faces of power
- Coercion
- Manipulation
- Domination
- Subjectification
agency-structure duality
Everyone has agency, but develops habits according to everyday’s structure, and thus keeps to the structure.
overt conflict
Visible, in-your-face conflict (confrontation of differences)
difference hegemony vs. dominance
Dominance often conveys a sense of power and authority, where one institution/organisation holds sway over others through force. On the other hand, hegemony is based on consensus and cooperation (not particularly with force)
cultural hegemony
Domination of one culture
hegemony
(especially of countries) the position of being the strongest and most powerful and therefore able to control others
latent conflict
It may exist in the form of tension, dissatisfaction, contravention and rivalry
covert conflict
Less visible conflict (differences are not discussed)
hegemonic power
Influence or authority over others
power as productive
Creating new possibilities for action and identity
power ‘through’ organizations
Extending to influence beyond its boundaries (external entities)
total institution (Ervin Goffman)
an institution that controls almost all aspects of its members’ lives
power ‘in’ organizations
Focuses on how power is used internally within an organization
hard control
Visible (e.g. manipulation)
power ‘over’ organizations
External forces, like government regulations or societal norms, impose power over the organization
power ‘against’ organizations
Acts of resistance or oppositions targeting the organization
power as repressive
Limiting the individual autonomy
three reasons why businesses employ surveillance
- To maintain productivity and monitor resources used by employees
- Protect trade secrets
- Provide evidence in case of legal dispute
soft control
Less visible (e.g. subjectification)
surveillance
any collection and processing of personal data, whether identifiable or not, for the purposes of influencing or managing those whose data have been garnered
Panopticon metaphor (surveillance)
Mechanisms are dispersed (everything can be seen at all times)
function creep
How one particular surveillance technique can reveal more than one kind of information about employees
anticipatory conformity
where employees behave in a docile and accepting way and automatically reduce the amount of commitment and motivation they display
Big Brother metaphor (surveillance)
Power is centralized
Rhizome metaphor (surveillance)
Rhizome = roots. So it means that surveillance mechanisms are becoming more and more networked
social sorting
the breakdown and categorization of group- or person-related raw data into various categories and segments by data manipulators and data brokers. It involves separating one group from the other
biometrics
referring to detailed information about someone’s body, such as the patterns of colour in their eyes, that can be used to prove who that person is
sousveillance
Where there is power, there is resistance and counter-power.
* Countersurveillance
* surveillance ‘from below’, one in the group does surveillance
synopticism
a situation where the many watch the few, or where they focus in common upon ‘something which is condensed’
distributive justice
the equity of reward (material or otherwise) for effort and punishment for non effort
e-recruitment
sifting through large volumes of CVs and searching for potential candidates
procedural justice
matters of employee voice, communication, trust, involvement and mutual responsibility between management and workers for performance
surveillance theory
surveillance as a pervasive, potent and sometimes even dangerous expression of power in contemporary organisations
undecided space
Because different people adopt different beliefs and perform different actions against the background of the same social structure, there must be an undecided space in front of these structures where individual subjects decide what beliefs to hold and what actions to perform for reasons of their own. (Bevir 1999: 358)
power with
When people come together; relational, ongoing, self-generating process
trace-ology
a process ‘which seeks to read world wide developments in non-obvious traces
power over
Domination
Mary Parker Follett’s way of dealing with difference –> integration
Find a way which both sides may get what they want (new way of organising)
Mary Parker Follett’s three ways of dealing with differences
- domination
- compromise
- integration
Mary Parker Follett’s way of dealing with difference –> domination
Only one side gets what it wants
Mary Parker Follett’s way of dealing with difference –> compromise
Neither side gets what it wants
‘law of the situation’
Decisions should be taken sensitive to the context
degeneration
The process by which something gets worse
the Iron Law of Oligarchy
Organization implies a tendency to oligarchy as a ‘natural law’. Oligarchization: Specialization leads to a minority of superiors –specialists turn into professional leaders –leaders isolate themselves and turn into a closed caste
tyranny of structurelessness
Concept developed by Jo Freeman, how it is impossible to have a structureless organisation. Structurelessness often leads to hidden power dynamics.
Oligarchy
government by a small group of very powerful people
degeneration thesis
Lowering of effective control either by falling out or selling out
falling out (degeneration thesis)
internal quarrel that can’t be solved, so we have to resort to what we know (classical managerialism)
negative externalities
One party makes another party worse off without bearing the costs from doing so
group think
Where members of a group prioritize consensus over critical thinking, leading to poor or irrational decisions
selling out (degeneration thesis)
selling the company to a traditional owner/ownerstructure
Battilana’s three argumetns for organizational democracy
- Ethical argument
- Social & environmental argument
- Economic argument
Battilana’s ethical argument for organizational democracy
Worker’s disempowerment contradicts Human Rights (when it is not democratic)
Battilana’s social/environmental argument for organizational democracy
pursue multiple objectives
* Triple Bottom Line → not only focus on financial but also on sustainability/climate, and the well-being of employees
joussiance
paradoxical tensions of pleasure and pain
Battilana’s economic argument for organizational democracy
rise of startups → technological changes (big companies are on the losing side)
* By democratization, there is room for innovation, worker experiences, etc.
affective control
This form of control is rooted in fantasies of wholeness and jouissance. It mobilizes people through paradoxical passions that create tensions between collective goals and individual needs
the entrepreneurial fantasy of a democratic organization
Limitless individual and organizational growth (excessive demands for recognition)
the spiritual fantasy of a democratic organization
A quest for purpose, meaning, and true self (people struggle to maintain boundaries)
Polanyi’s Double Movement
The ongoing tension between market forces exploiting workers and social movements pushing back
the tribal fantasy of a democratic organization
Belonging to a caring and trusted community (demand to share and oversharing)
leading
Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to the organization’s success
democratic leadership
The leader involves the entire team in decision-making. Leads to string engagement, creativity and sustainable productivity even in the absence of the leader. Can be time-consuming.
autocratic leadership
The leader makes all the decisions. Increases productivity short-term, but is detrimental to long term engagement, motivation and creativity
codetermination
Models of collective bargaining and worker participation in firm governance provide a voice for workers but have weakened under neoliberalism.
managing
The role of management is to control a group or group of individuals in order to achieve a specified objective.
servant leadership
a leader should primarily focus on helping their followers grow, develop, and succeed, which, in turn, creates a more effective, motivated, and harmonious organization or team.
* Downside: very time consuming, not for all organizations, losing sight of goals, motivation is delicate
Complex Leadership Theory
suggests that the role of leaders should not be limited to aligning worker preferences with centralized organizational goals. Rather, (crisis) leaders are not just top-down, but are also formed through interactions between individuals. Leadership can also come from anywhere within the organization and is often situational and adaptive
Great Man Theory
The measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behaviour, thought and emotion
* All great leaders have specific traits (focused on male traits)
situational approach
Other name for the contingency approach, is a concept in management stating that there is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to lead organizations.
laissez-faire leadership
Hands-off leadership where the team members make all the decisions. Also known as “zero leadership”. This can work well in highly skilled and self-motivated teams but is most often detrimental for productivity.
transformational leaders
Move followers to awareness about what is important, and away from own self-interests
* Focus on vision, use charisma and enthusiasm for motivation, are proactive in nature
transactional leaders
Occur when followers are moved to complete their roles as agreed with a leader in exchange for a reward
* Focus on goals, use rewards and punishments for motivation, are reactive in nature
rhetorical paradox
A rhetorical paradox is a trope that represents an opposition between two terms
adaptive leadership
Emergent change behaviours under conditions of interactions, interdependence, asymmetrical information, complex network dynamics, and tension. It manifest in complex adaptive systems and interactions among agents rather than in individuals and is recognizable when it has significance and impact.
It presupposes interaction, collaboration and coordination
emergent leadership theory
leadership is created through the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself.
Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS)
a basic unit of analysis in complexity science. CAS are networks of interacting, interdependent agents who are bonded in a cooperative space by common goal, outlook, need, etc.
* a framework used to understand systems composed of many interconnected, dynamic components that adapt and evolve over time in response to their environment.
Poole’s ways of coping with paradoxes
- denial
- cosmetic
- selection
- alternation
- segmentation
- transcendence
social paradoxes
contradictory or opposing dynamics, behaviors, or phenomena that exist within societies or social structures. These paradoxes arise from societal, cultural, or political realities.
cosmetic way of coping with paradoxes
Act as if you’ve dealt with the paradoxes but in reality haven’t
segmentation way of coping with paradoxes
Some units deal with one pole and another unit with the other
logical paradox
the case in which we confront two contrary or even contradictory propositions to which we are led by an apparently sound argument (e.g. I always lie)
paradox of power
Being nice is the best path to power, but achieving power turns people nasty
Acceptable Risks
A business or individual acknowledges that the potential loss from a risk is not great enough to warrant spending money to avoid it
alternation way of coping with paradoxes
Switch from pole to the other over time
selection way of coping with paradoxes
Embrace one pole and ignore the other
organizational deviance
Anything occurring in an organization that departs from formal goals, normative standards or expectations and that results in an unanticipated and undesirable outcome. Different from misconduct!
High Reliability Organization (HRO)
An organization that has succeeded in avoiding catastrophes in an environment where normal accidents can be expected due to risk factors and complexity.
transcendence way of coping with paradoxes
Work out new and creative responses
metaphor of ambidextrous people
Ambidextrous people are capable of using both hands when an organisation is able to deal with both sides of a paradox they are using both hands
three ways of looking at “matters of class”
- as the process of the formation of classes
- understanding the markers/characteristics of the already ‘solidified/emerging’ classes
- the consequences of class formation and/or ‘class behaviour’ of the ‘solidified’ classes/class structure on the social fabric of society
invisible structure of social space
In this space, classes emerge (or not) as a result of unspoken rules, social hierarchies, cultural norms, and hidden power dynamics that govern how individuals and groups interact in society
first dimension of power
Make others do what you want them to do (decision making, is a visible power) is about observable and direct conflict
three dimensional coordinates that decide class
- volume of capital (how much you have)
- composition of capital (what you capital consists of e.g. education, money, etc.)
- trajectory (what you do with your capital)
second dimension of power
Power exercised by controlling the agenda, shaping what is discussed and what not.
third dimension of power
ideological power (invisible) is about shaping perceptions, preferences and desires (is about domination)
socialism
advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole
capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit
social space
Distribution of economic and cultural capital (class division)
power and class intersection
Hierarchies at the top need to be understood, to understand the bottom of the organization
risk taking and decision making in social class
CEOs from lower social classes often engage in greater strategic risk-taking
social class bias
The management of large corporations is heavily influenced by biases that favour those from upper social classes. This bias reflects broader societal values, including an emphasis on shareholder return
leadership diversity in social class
When individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds join top management, they can influence corporate behaviour by emphasizing more inclusive policies, such as environmental sustainability or broad hiring practices
fluidity
Quality of liquids and gases/no shape/changes all the time/mobile/light
‘happy diversity’
The ‘happy’ image of diversity masks that we don’t actually do much to change the current structures
diversity as marketing appeal
Diversity is used to present a happy place where differences are celebrated
bureaucratisation of diversity
the Race Relations Amendment Act (2000) has encouraged the shift towards seeing diversity and equality work itself as auditable (audit = to make an official examination of the accounts of a business and produce a report).
image management
Generating a ‘right image’ rather than doing what is right
TINA (There Is No Alternative)
In the age of liquid modernity-individualisation is not a choice, to refuse to participate in the game is not an option
solid modernity
Institutions, behaviour and choices were able to keep their shape. There was a strong and obvious tie between power and politics. Social community and collective action was apparent. Long-term planning and acting possible
* structured, predictable, and enduring social order (earlier phases of modernity)
Tick Box Compliance
The distinction between compliance and good practice is blurred as both become embedded in the “performative university” culture, which values measurable and marketable outcomes.
Modernity
era of humanity that was defined by scientific, technological, and socioeconomic changes. Stresses individual autonomy and secularism
liquid modernity
Social forms and institutions no longer have enough time to solidify and cannot serve as frames of reference for human actions and long-term life plans
* more modern way that typifies an every-changing, and unstable nature of modern society
superdiversity
There is more to diversity than only ethnicity, and the interplay of all these factors is superdiversity
cultural assimilation
the process in which a minority group or culture comes to resemble a society’s majority group or assimilates the values, behaviours, and beliefs of another group whether fully or partially.
two major paradigms in dealing with diversity
- essentializing sameness (colour-blindness)
- essentializing difference
sameness-difference dilemma
Diversity is either assimilated (shared) or essentialized (individualistic)
essentializing sameness (diversity paradigm)
focuses on tackling the ways in which discrimination emerges as a source of exclusion in organizations. Yet the solution in this paradigm is to assimilate the difference into sameness by introducing colourblind policies.
Seeing everybody as fundamentally similar and treating all individuals equally…
third possible paradigm of diversity?
It stresses the need to see diversity as a process, as ‘ongoing learning’ in order to overcome or deal with exclusion
essentializing difference (diversity paradigm)
celebrates diversity to seek access to a more diverse clientele and customers. Within this paradigm difference is included, yet some what marginalized within organizations as it solely serves the purpose of promotion to a diverse group of clientele or customers.
cultural cloning
Discourse of ‘how to include other’ masks ‘preference for sameness’. The system’s inclined to reproduce white sameness.
childrens disease
Give time to develop, not perfect yet but it will be. A child cannot be perfect yet
the usefulness of lies
The concept of a “useful lie” is presented, where diversity documents can be used to create an aspirational image of an institution that practitioners can leverage to push for actual change, despite the documents themselves being disconnected from reality.
the six mechanisms (6 R’s) of algorithmic control in the workplace (Kellogg)
- Restricting
- Recommending
- Recording
- Rating
- Replacing
- Rewarding
paradox of AI
The paradox arises because, while AI makes us better at certain tasks (like analysing data), it also requires us to be more diligent and responsible. Essentially, the very skills that AI helps us develop are the ones we need to ensure that we use AI safely and ethically.
the terrain evaluation, one of the 3 six R’s domains
The review of workers’ activities to correct mistakes, assess performance, and identify those who are not performing adequately.
* Recording: use of computational procedures to monitor, aggregate, and report, often in real time, a wide range of finely grained data from internal and external sources.
* Rating: mechanism for guiding worker behaviour through evaluation. Algorithmic rating can also provide ongoing aggregation of quantitative and qualitative feedback about worker performance from both internal and external sources (ep. Ratings given by customers on Tripadvisor can be used to monitor performance of staff).
three terrains in which the six R’s mechanisms can be divided up
- Direction
- Evaluation
- Discipline
the terrain direction, one of the 3 six R’s domains
Technologies that drive employees to do particular tasks at a particular rate through sequencing, specialization, and de-skilling
* Restricting: use of algorithms to display only certain information and allow specific behaviours while preventing others
* Recommending: using algorithms to offer suggestions intended to prompt the targeted worker to make decisions preferred by the choice architect.
the terrain discipline, of the 3 six R’s domains
The punishment and reward of workers to elicit cooperation and enforce compliance
* Rewarding: using algorithms to interactively and dynamically reward high-performing workers with more opportunities, higher pay, and promotions.
* Replacing: rapidly or even automatically firing underperforming workers from the organisation and replacing them with substitute workers.
how algorithmic technologies can be more instantaneous
- provide instantaneous feedback, which relates to the pace aspect of big data
Platforms can instantaneously compute, save, and communicate real-time information with workers and managers—including client comments, completion rates, or number of page views
Result: Feedback and assessment can be incorporated continuously into the production process
how algorithmic technologies can be more opaque
three main reasons:
* Intentional secrecy: The data and algorithms used to collect and analyse behaviour data are usually proprietary and undisclosed
* Required technical literacy: given the complexity of the technologies, most workers do not fully grasp what kind of data are being collected about them, how they are being used, or how to contest them
* Machine-learning opacity: Algorithms are particularly difficult to decipher. Machine learning takes place without any regard for human comprehension. According to Burrell (2016)
how algorithmic technologies can be more comprehensive
- mobilised for technical or bureaucratic control with a wide range of devices and sensors.
Collecting a variety of data about workers, such as biometrics, acceleration, text messages, and online footprints.
how algorithmic technologies can be more interactive
especially when used in conjunction with algorithmically mediated platforms that provide data from multiple parties
morality
encompasses socially developed norms and practices for regulating conflicting interests; it informs decision-making and is in turn influenced by decision-making
climate change business risks
- Regulatory risks
- Management risks
- Reputational risks
- Physical risks
regulatory risk as a climate change business risk
governments worldwide implement policies to mitigate environmental impacts and transition to a low-carbon economy. These risks can affect costs, operations, and competitiveness
management risk as a climate change business risk
Competitors gain advantage via new ‘green’ technologies and products
new corporate environmentalism
Refers to a modern approach where businesses proactively prioritize environmental sustainability and social responsibility in their operations.
reputational risk as a climate change business risk
Danger that consumers view companies’ activities as environmentally harmful, resulting in declining sales and reputation
physical risk as a climate change business risk
Risk of extreme weather events and changed climate-threatening operations and infrastructure
the commons
Commons are shared resources that groups of people (communities, user groups, peer-to-peer) sustainably manage for individual and collective benefit.
climate change opportunities
- Efficiency
- Innovation
- New markets
- Staff engagement
- Shareholder value
polycentric governance
a system of governance where multiple, overlapping decision-making centers operate independently but interact with one another, often across different levels (local, regional, national, global)
cosmolocalism
Confluence of the digital commons (e.g., open knowledge and design) with local manufacturing and automation technologies
how businesses translate climate change into business as usual
- Framing
- Localizing
- Normalizing
Framing as how businesses translate climate change into business
Corporations frame climate change as compatible with business goals, often associating their image with positive environmental values while distancing themselves from harm.
localizing as how businesses translate climate change into business
Translating global climate challenges into business-specific initiatives, assigning economic value to climate actions.
normalizing as how businesses translate climate change into business
Embedding climate actions into daily operations while minimizing disruption to traditional business models.
why societies cannot rely on business and market responses to the climate crisis
- Temporal disconnect
- Complicity
- Central authority
Temporal disconnect as why societies cannot rely on business and market responses to the climate changes
Short-term objectives and reliance on growth.
Complicity as why societies cannot rely on business and market responses to the climate changes
Causing the very problems, they are asked to solve. Radical decarbonization is incompatible with economic growth.
Central authority as why societies cannot rely on business and market responses to the climate changes
Responding to grand challenges requires systemic intervention based around central authority. Politics has increasingly become obedient to corporate interests.
Circular economy systems
- Systemic collective action approach to sustainability: cooperation between businesses and other actors
- Waste as a raw material: recycling, reuse, and remanufacturing – circular re-use of residual materials
- Closed-loop economic system: maintaining value in resources as they are reused and recycled across multiple organizational owners
Residual resources
Privately owned waste and by-products from industries, which can be valuable if reused but face challenges like lack of information or scale.
Ecosystem
A community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each other in a specific environment
