Organisations, Movements and Members

Question 1

Defining Religious Organisations - Types

Answer 1

Church
Sect
Denomination
Cult

Question 2

church

Answer 2

Troeltsch
Church - long established, large religious organisation
Tend to demand low commitment
Allow people contact with others outside the church - inclusive
Claim a monopoly on truth but are connected to the wider society
Examples: Catholic Church, Protestant Church (including, Church of England), Islam, Judaism, Hinduism. They are universalistic, aiming to include the whole of society

Question 3

sects

Answer 3

Troeltsch
Sect - Religious movement which breaks away from a church, usually due to conflict with the teachings of the church
Tend to follow a charismatic leader who offers an alternative monopoly on truth
Smaller and exclusive (contact with ‘outsiders’ discouraged)
High commitment required from members.

Question 4

denominations

Answer 4

Neibuhr
Troeltsch’s definitions are limited as more types of religious organisations exist
Identifies two more types of religious organisations:
Denomination – which exists between a church and a sect
If a sect can survive the death of its charismatic leader and establish a
second generation of followers it tends to become more mainstream.
As it grows larger it becomes less exclusive and less high demand than in
the early days of the sect.
However, it is still less mainstream and low demand than a church and less mainstream.
Examples: Methodists. Baptists.

Question 5

cults

Answer 5

Neibuhr
Cults - Mystic movements
Focuses on the individual experience and pursuit of ultimate ‘truth’
Loose structured with individualistic organisation and charismatic leader
They tend not to claim a monopoly on truth but advocate pursuing the improvement of life in this world.
Seen as deviant/outside the mainstream.
Example: Scientology

Question 6

evals of types of religious organisation

Answer 6

Many religious organisations do not fit neatly into one category, especially as practices tend to change over time
The Quakers are less exclusive than the Mormons
Neibuhr’s definition of a cult does not share the same characteristics we associate with cults

Question 7

New Religious Movements

Answer 7

Wallis
Since the 1960s there has been a further growth in
religious movements different to those identified by
Troeltsch and Neibuhr
E.g. Children of God, Transcendental meditation,
Krishna consciousness etc.
New Religious Movements can be separated into three
categories

Question 8

types of New Religious Movements

Answer 8

World Rejecting NRMS
World Accommodating NRMS
World Affirming NRM

Question 9

sociologist for NRMs

Answer 9

Wallis

Question 10

world rejecting NRMs

Answer 10

These are similar to Troeltschs sects, examples include the Moonies, Children of God. They vary in size. They have several characteristics - they are clearly religious organisations with a clear notion of God. They are highly critical of the outside world and they expect or seek radical change. To achieve salvation, members must make a sharp break from their former life. Members live communally with restricted contact with the outside world, The movement controls all aspects of their lives and is often accused of brainwashing them. They often have conservative moral codes

Question 11

world accommodating NRMs

Answer 11

These are often breakaways from existing mainstream churches or denominations such as neo-Pentecostalism who split from Catholicism. They neither accept nor reject the world, and they focus on religious rather than worldly matters, seeking to restore the spiritual purity of religion. For example, neo-Pentecostalists believe that other Christian religions have lost the Holy Spirit, and members tend to lead conventional lives

Question 12

world-affirming NRMs

Answer 12

They differ from all other religious groups and lack some of the conventional features of religion such as collective worship. Examples include - Scientology. Some characteristics - They accept the world as it is, they are optimistic and promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals and values such as careers and personal relationships. They are non-exclusive and tolerant of other religions, but claim to offer additional special knowledge that enables followers to unlock their own spiritual powers and achieve success or overcome problems such as unhappiness. Most are cults whose followers are often customers rather than members and entry is through training. The movement places few demands on them and they carry on normal lives. They are the most successful movements studied by Wallis

Question 13

eval of NRM

Answer 13

Wallis offers a useful way of classifying the new religious movements that have developed in recent decades. However some argue that it is not clear whether he is categorising them according to the movement’s teachings or individual members’ beliefs. He also ignores the diversity of beliefs that may exist within an NRM. Stark and Bainbridge reject the idea of constructing such typologies altogether. Instead, they argue that we should distinguish between religious organisations using just one criterion - the degree of conflict or tension between the religious group and wider society.

Question 14

Sects and Cults

Answer 14

Stark and Bainbridge
Both sects and cults are in conflict with societ
Sects offer other-worldly rewards to people suffering economically or to those of have different views to mainstream society
Cults offer this-world rewards to those suffering physically or psychologically

Audience cults – low organisation, low commitment, participation through social media (e.g. UFO cults)

Client cults – provide a business service to believers, promise better health and self-discovery (Transcendental Meditation, Yoga clubs
etc.)

Cultic Movements – Highly organised, demand high commitment, exclusive membership (e.g. doomsday groups)

Question 15

explaining the growth of religious movements

Answer 15

Marginality
Relative deprivation
Social change

Question 16

sociologists for marginality

Answer 16

Troeltsch
Weber

Question 17

marginality

Answer 17

Troeltsch argues that sects tend to draw members from the poor and oppressed. Similarly, Weber argues that sects tend to arise in groups who were marginal to society. Such groups may feel that they are disprivileged in society. Weber argues that sects offer a solution to this problem by offering members a theodicy of disprivilege, that is, a religious explanation and justification for their suffering and disadvantages. This may explain their misfortune as a test of faith, for example, while holding out the promise of rewards in the future for keeping the faith. For example the NOI recruited among disadvantaged Black People in the USA. However other NRMs have recruited from the MC like the moonies

Question 18

socologists for Relative Deprivation

Answer 18

Wallis
Stark and Bainbridge

Question 19

relative deprivation

Answer 19

This refers to the subjective sense of being deprived. This means that those that are privileged can feel deprived. Thus although MC people are materially well off, they may feel spiritually deprived in todays society, which they may perceive as impersonal and lacking in moral value. As a result, Wallis argues they may turn to sects for a sense of community. Similarly, stark and Bainbridge argue that it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects. For exmaple, the deprived may want to emphasise Christ’s message that ‘the meek shall inherit the earth’ Stark and Bainbridge argue that world-rejecting sects offer to the deprived the compensators that they need for the rewards they are denied in this world. They are attracted to world-accepting churches that express their status and bring them further success in achieving earthly rewards

Question 20

sociologist for social change

Answer 20

Wilson
Bruce

Question 21

social change

Answer 21

Wilson argues that periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine established norms and values, producing anomie. In response to the uncertainty and insecurity this creates, those who are most affected by the disruption may turn to sects for a solution. For example, the dislocation created by the industrial revolution in Britain led to the birth of Methodism. Bruce argues that the growth of sects and cults today is a response to the social changes involved in modernisation and secularisation. In Bruce’s view, society is now secularised and therefore people are less attracted to traditional churches and strict sects because these demand too much commitment. Instead people now prefer cults because they are less demanding

Question 22

explaining the growth of world-rejecting NRMs

Answer 22

Wallis points to social changes from the 1960s impacting young people. This enabled a counter-culture to develop. W-R NRMs offered alternative ideas about the future.

Question 23

explaining the growth of World-affirming NRMs

Answer 23

Bruce argues that their growth is a response to modernity, esp to the rationalisation of work. Work no longer provides meaning or a source of identity unlike in the past, when the protestant ethic gave work a religious meaning for some people. These NRMs provide both a sense of identity and techniques that promise success in this world

Question 24

the dynamics of sects and NRMs

Answer 24

Domination and Death
The sectarian cycle
Established sects
The growth of the New Age

Question 25

denomination or death

Answer 25

Niebuhr argues that sects are world-rejecting organisations that come into existence because of schism - splitting from an established church because of a disagreement over religious doctrine. Niebuhr argues that sects are short-lived. This is due to several reasons
Death of the Leader
When the leader of a sect dies it creates a vacuum resulting in a dilution of the religious message
The Second Generation
Those born into the sect are less committed to its values as they did not choose to join
The Protestant Ethic Effect
Sects that practice ascetism (work + save) will develop more affluent members who will break the sect rules/leave

Question 26

sectarian cycle

Answer 26

Similarly, stark and Bainbridge argue that religious organisations move through a cycle. Schism – break away from mainstream church with its
world-rejecting view
Initial fervour – composed of a charismatic leader, tensions with other sects and wider society
Denominationalism – following the death of the leader sects dilute their initial message
Establishment – Sect becomes world-accepting and tensions reduce
Further schisms – members break away and create new sects

Question 27

established sects

Answer 27

Wilson argues that not all sects follow the pattern outlines above. Conversionist sects – aim to convert large numbers of people to ensure growth and stability of the group (e.g. evangelicals)
Adventist – Following the group rules and separating yourself will ensure the second coming/return to God (e.g. the Church of Latter Day Saints). This separatism prevents them from compromising. Wilson goes on to argue that some sects have survived over many generations, instead of becoming denominations they became established sects. However, Wilson argues that globalisation will make it harder in the future for sects to keep themselves separate from the outside world, which will cause them to disintegrate.

Question 28

Postmodernism and New Age Religion

Answer 28

Drane argues that People no longer believe in metanarratives
People no longer believe mainstream churches have access to truth
Everyone has their own interpretations of spiritualism, they are disillusioned with the church’s failure to meet their spiritual needs

Question 29

the new age and modernity

Answer 29

Bruce argues that the growth of the new age is a feature of the latest phase of modern society as modern societies value individualism which is a key principle of New Age beliefs. Heelas (1996) – New Age Religions are growing for 4 reasons
They give people an “authentic” identity in an uncertain world
Consumer culture does not deliver the perfection advertised but NAR’s might
NAR give people stability in a risk society
Secularisation moves people away from traditional religions towards new meanings

Question 30

Gender and Religiosity

Answer 30

Risk, socialisation and roles
Paid Work
Women and the New Age
Women and Sects
The pentecostal gender paradox

Question 31

sociologist for risk socialisation and roles

Answer 31

Miller and Hoffman

Question 32

sociologist for women and the new age

Answer 32

Heelas and Woodhead
Bruce
Brown

Question 33

sociologist for paid work

Answer 33

Bruce

Question 34

sociologists for women and sects

Answer 34

Bruce
Stark and Bainbridge

Question 35

sociologist for pentecostal gender paradox

Answer 35

Martin
Brusco

Question 36

risk socialisation and roles

Answer 36

Miller and Hoffman argue that gender differences in risk-taking is a reason for differences in religiosity. By not being religious, people are risking that religion might be right and they’ll go to hell. As men are less risk-averse than women, they are more likely to take the risk of not being religious. Secondly, women are more religious because they are socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring. These qualities are valued by most religions so it follows that women are more likely than men to be attracted to religion. Thirdly, Miller and Hoffman argue that women’s gender roles mean they are more likely than men to work as part-time or full-time carers, so they have more scope for organising their time to participate in religious activities. Greeley argues that their role in taking care of other family members increases women’s religiosity because it involves responsibility for their ultimate welfare as well as their everyday needs.

Question 37

paid work

Answer 37

Bruce argues that women’s religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work. He links this to secularisation and rationalism. Over the last two centuries, this has gradually driven religion out of the male-dominated public sphere of work, confining it to the private sphere of family and personal life, the sphere that women are concerned with. Religion has become privatised - and so men’s religiosity is declining

Question 38

women and the new age

Answer 38

Heelas and Woodhead found that 80% of the participants in the holistic milieu in Kendal were female. This may be due to the fact that women are more often involved with nature and natural processes and New Age movement often celebrates the natural and involve cults of healing which gives women a higher status and sense of self-worth. Similarly, Bruce argues that women’s experience of child-rearing makes them less aggressive which fits in the expressive emphasis of the New Age. Brown argues that the New Age self religions those that emphasise subjective experiences rather than external authority attract women as they appeal to women’s wish for autonomy

Question 39

women and sects

Answer 39

Bruce argues that there are twice as many women as men involved in sects. Stark and Bainbridge argue that this is because they offer compensators for organismic, ethical and social deprivation. These forms of deprivation are more common among women and this explains their higher level of sect membership. Organismic deprivation - women are more likely to suffer ill health and thus seek healing that sects offer.
Ethical deprivation - women tend to be more morally conservative - they are thus more likely to regard the world as being in moral decline and be attracted to sects, which often share this view. Social deprivation - sects attract poorer groups and women are more likely to be poor

Question 40

pentecostal gender paradox

Answer 40

Pentecostalism has grown rapidly and it is generally regarded as a patriarchal form of religion, despite this women are still attracted to it, Martin describes this as the Pentecostal gender paradox. According to Brusco, the answer lies in the fact that Pentecostalism demands that its followers adopt a self-denying lifestyle which insists that men provide for their families. Pentecostal women can use these ideas to combat a widespread culture of machismo in Latin America where men spend 20-40% of the household’s income on alcohol, prostitutes, tobacco etc. Pentecostal men are pressured by their church to change their ways and focus on their families.

Question 41

recent trends

Answer 41

Although women remain more likely to be religious than men, there has been a decline in their participation in religious activities in the UK. This is due to more movement into paid work by women and their rejection of traditional gender roles. Although some women are attracted to New Age beliefs their numbers are relatively modest

Question 42

ethnicity and religiosity

Answer 42

O’Beirne
Ethnic minority groups see religion as part of their cultural identity
UK Muslim’s ranked religion equal to family
UK Afro-Caribbean Christians ranked religion third equal
UK White Christians ranked religion the lowest

Official Statistics
White Christians – 32% regularly attend their religious
organisatio
UK Muslim’s – 80% regularly attend their religious organisation

Question 43

reasons for ethnic differences

Answer 43

cultural difference
cultural transition

Question 44

sociologist for cultural transition

Answer 44

Bruce
Bird

Question 45

sociologist for cultural defence

Answer 45

Herbeg

Question 46

cultural defence

Answer 46

Bruce argues that religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment. Bird argues that religion among minorities can be a basis for community solidarity, a means of preserving ones culture and language and a way of coping with oppression in a racist society. Religion is used against change or hostility in wider society. African-Caribbean communities use church organisations to shield from racism in wider society

Question 47

cultural transition

Answer 47

Religion can also be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups in their new environment. This is the explanation Herbeg gives for high levels of religious participation among first-generation immigrants in the USA. Religion helps ethnic minorities assimilate into society Can meet friends, support networks, and strengthen
community being ethnic groups. - pentecostalism, Africans and Pryce

Question 48

sociologist for age

Answer 48

Voas and Crockett

Question 49

age and religiosity

Answer 49

Voas and Crockett give reasons
Ageing effect - this is the view that people turn to religion as they get older, for example Heelas argues that people become more interested in spirituality as they age. As we approach age we naturally become more concerned with spiritual matters and the afterlife
The period or cohort effect - people born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of particular events they lived through such as war
Secularisation - as religion declines in importance, each generation becomes less religious than the one before it

Question 50

sociologist for social class

Answer 50

Marx
Weber
Lawes

Question 51

social class

Answer 51

Marx
The working-classes are more likely to be religious as they are ideologically controlled

Weber
Working-classes are most likely to be religious as it explains their poverty

Lawes
Working-classes are likely to be lifelong theists meaning they believe in God throughout their lives
Middle/Upper classes tend to be lifelong atheists

Question 52

evals of social class

Answer 52

Ashworth and Farthing

Wealthy rural areas have higher church attendance than poorer
urban areas

Voas and Watt

Middle-class people may attend church more to get their
children into better schools

Ahern and Davie

Working-classes distrust religious institutions due to associations
with royalty and law