Organisations, Movements and Beliefs

Question 1

What is the difference between church and sects according to Troeltsch?

Answer 1

Churches:
- Large organisations
- Run by bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests
- Claim a monopoly of truth
- Universalistic, open membership
- Ideologically conservative, closely linked with state.

Sects:
- Small, exclusive groups
- Hostile to wider society
- Expect high level of commitment
- Draw members from poor/oppressed
- Lead by charismatic leader
- Believe they have a monopoly of truth.
- EG: Jehovah Witness.

Question 2

What are denominations according to Niebuhr?

Answer 2

• Midway between churches and sects.
• Membership is less exclusive than sects, but don’t appeal to the whole of society.
• Accept society’s values but aren’t linked to the state.
• Impose minor restrictions on members, but aren’t as demanding as sects.
• Tolerant of other religious organisations and don’t claim a monopoly of truth.
• EG: Mehodist, Sunnis.

Question 3

What are cults according to Niebuhr?

Answer 3

• Loosely organised
• Highly individualistic
• Small grouping around shared interests, not based on a specific belief system
• Led by ‘practitioners’ who claim special knowledge.
• Tolerant of other religions
• Members are seen as customers/consumers, no strong commitment.
  EG: Scientology

Question 4

What does Wallis say about how church, sects, denominations and cults view themselves?

Answer 4

• Church and sects claim their interpretation of faith is the only legitimate one.
• Denominations and cults accept there can be many valid interpretations.

EVAL: Bruce would say religious diversity means the church no longer has a religious monopoly of truth.

Question 5

What does Wallis say about how church, sects, denominations and cults are seen by wider society?

Answer 5

• Churches and denominations are seen as respectable.
• Sects and Cults are seen as deviant.

Question 6

List the 3 groups of New Religious Movements according to Wallis

Answer 6

• World-rejecting NRMs (similar to Sects, clear religious belief, critical of outside world, conservative morals, members live communally, Moonies, People Temple)
• World-accommodating NRMs (breakaways from church+denominations, Neo-Pentacostalists, neither accept or reject the world but focus on restoring spirituality and focus on religion rather than worldly matters)
• World-affirming NRMs (similar to Cults, lack conventional features of religion and aren’t highly organised, but do offer followers access to spiritual powers, optimistic view of the world, tolerant, non-exclusive)

Question 7

Evaluate Wallis’s categorisations

Answer 7

• Ignores diversity of beliefs that may exist within a NRM
• Unclear whether Wallis is categorising them according to movements or individual beliefs

Question 8

What do Stark and Bainbridge say about the nature of sects and cults?

Answer 8

• Sects result from schism, they break away from Churches because of disagreements about doctrine.
• Cults are new religions.
• Sects have ‘other-worldly’ benefits, a place in heaven to those suffering economic/ethical deprivation.
• Cults have this-worldly benefits to more prosperous individuals who are suffering psychic/organismic deprivation.

Question 9

What are the 3 organisations of cults according to Stark and Bainbridge?

Answer 9

• Audience cults: least organised, no formal membership, little interaction between members- might be on media, eg: astrology.
• Client cults: based on relationship between consultant and client, provides service to followers.
• Cultic movements: organised, high level of commitment, followers are rarely allowed to be part of other religious movements.

Question 10

Why is marginalisation a reason for the growth of NRM’s (sects) ?

Answer 10

• Weber argues sects arise in groups who are marginal to society, these groups feel disprivilege because they don’t receive economic rewards.
• Sects offer members a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’ which is a religious explanation and justification for their suffering, such as their suffering is a test of faith.
• (Since the 1960’s sects like world-rejecting NRM’s have recruited more from middle class)

Question 11

Why is relative deprivation a reason for the growth of NRM’s according to Stark and Bainbridge?

Answer 11

• Refers to the subjective sense of being deprived, possible for a privileged person to feel deprived in some way, they might feel spiritually deprived in a materialistic world.
• World-rejecting sects offer the deprived the compensators they need for the rewards they’re denied in this world.
• However, when m/c members of a church comprise its beliefs in order to fit into society, deprived members are likely to break away to form sects that safeguard the original message.

Question 12

Why is social change a reason for the growth of NRM’S according to Wilson?

Answer 12

• Periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine established norms and values, producing anomie.
• In response to the uncertainty that this created, those affected turn to sects as a solution.
  EG: Dislocation created by the Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the birth of Methodism which offered a sense of community, warmth and fellowship, clear norms and values with the promise of salvation.

Question 13

Why are sects short-lived according to Niebuhr?

Answer 13

• Problems maintaining commitment: enthusiasm is hard to maintain after the first generation, organisation will become less extreme and turn into a domination.
• Death of a leader: sects with charismatic leaders will become a denomination after being taken over by bureaucratic leadership.
• ‘Protestant ethic’ effect: sects that practice asceticism become more prosperous, members will be tempted to compromise with the world, so they will leave the sect or abandon its world rejecting beliefs.

Question 14

Why are sects not short-lived according to Aldridge?

Answer 14

• Many sects have existed for a long time and retain their features as a sect
• Jehovah’s Witness developed in the 1880’s and is still going strong today.
• Sects have strict behaviour codes which are maintained overtime.
• Amish developed in 1693 and are predominant in society today, members who don’t conform to community expectations are excommunicated and may be shunned. This limits social contact so the wayward members will return to church.

Question 15

What are conversionist sects according to Wilson?

Answer 15

• Sects that are most likely to turn into a denomination.
• Less hostile to wider world, aim to convert large numbers of people and spread their message.
• This means they can grow rapidly into larger, more formal denominations.

Question 16

What are adventist sects according to Wilson?

Answer 16

• Sects that believe they must hold themselves separate from the corrupt world, prevents them from becoming denominations.
• God will return to judge people and only sect members will gain a place in heaven.

Question 17

What are New Age Movements?

Answer 17

• A range of beliefs and activities which contain a spiritual element but are not organised in the way of traditional religion.
• They are diverse and eclectic, offering world-rejecting and world-affirming aspects.
• Heelas believes self spirituality and detraditionalisation characterises these movements, the self is the final authority.
• Heelas describes it as a spiritual supermarket as individuals pick what beliefs and practices fit them best.

Question 18

How are New Age Movements and post-modernity linked?

Answer 18

• A source of identity
• Consumer culture
• Rapid social change
• Decline of organised religion

Question 19

Examples of NAM’s

Answer 19

• Astrology
• UFO
• Crystals
• Mysticisms
• Clarvoyance
• Paganism

Question 20

Statistics for women are more religious than men

Answer 20

• Female churchgoers outnumber males by almost half a million
• 2005 census 55% of women say they are more religious than men 44%
• 38% vs 26% of women say they are more religious than men, 2012.
• An exception in high participation is Islam in which men seem to show greater commitment and involvement, but women are recommended to pray at home.

Question 21

Why are women more religious than men according to Miller and Hoffman?

Answer 21

• Risk taking: men are more likely to take risks of not being religious and potentially going to hell.
• Socialisation: women are socialised to be more religious as they’re socialised to be more obedient, passive and caring, which is what religion values.
• Gender roles: women aren’t as likely to be in full-time work as men so they have more time to participate in religious organisations.

Question 22

Why are women more religious than men according to Davie?

Answer 22

Women feel closer to God due to their involvement in the creation of life.

Question 23

Why is social deprivation and marginality a reason for women being more religious than men?

Answer 23

-Women are more likely than men to face social deprivation and marginality and may experience more disillusionment and alienation from wider society.
- Women are more likely to experience poverty as they are less powerful in a patriarchal society, not in paid employment due to not being able to break through the glass ceiling of being a. mother.
- They turn to NA and NRMs to find solace in religious solutions and support.

Question 24

Greater life expectancy

Answer 24

Women live longer than men, more likely to be widowed or living own their own as they grow older. Leads to greater religiosity as religion is a source of support and comfort and community.

Question 25

Why does Bruce argue women are more religion/likely to join NRMS’s?

Answer 25

• Organismic deprivation: women are more likely to suffer ill health so look to sects and cults for healing.
• Ethical deprivation: women are more morally conservative, regard the world to be in moral decline and turn to sects.
• Social deprivation: women are more likely to be in poverty, sects and cults tend to attract the poorer groups in society

Question 26

What are the three types of women Woodhead identified with regards to religious participation?

Answer 26

Home centred: women who stay at home are more likely to engage in traditional religion as they subscribe to conservative values that prioritise home and family.
Work centred: women in demanding jobs are more secular, less time for religious activities.
Jugglers: women who balance work and family still seek spiritual guidance. more likely to be involved in NAM which are more individualistic/require less commitment.

Question 27

How do Aune et al evaluate the view that women are more religious?

Answer 27

• Feminist movement has led women questioning the role of women in society and religion. Oppressive.
• Womens roles are changing as they take on more paid work, less time for religious activity
• Contemporary society has growing diversity in family structures and living arrangements which are disapproved by traditional churches who favour nuclear family.
• Changes in sexuality.

Question 28

What is the link between ethnicity and religiosity in the UK?

Answer 28

• Ethnic minorities tend to be more religious than the ethnic majority in the UK and religious, religious affiliation forms a big part of their ethnic identity.
• Brierley 2013 found black people are twice as likely to attend church as white people. Muslims, Hindus and Black Christians see religion as important and attend weekly at their place of worship.
• Modood says there is less religiosity amongst 2nd gen ethnic groups.

Question 29

Culture defence as a reason for ethnic minority religiosity

Answer 29

Bruce argues religion offers support and a sense of culture identity in uncertain or hostile environments.
Bird argues religion is a basis for community solidarity, means of preserving culture and language and coping with oppression in a racist society.

Question 30

Culture transition as a reason for ethnic minority religiosity

Answer 30

Herberg argues religion is a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community in the new environment.

EG: Pryce’s study of the African Caribbean community in Bristol shows cultural defence and transition have been important.
Pentecostalism helped them adapt to British society as it encouraged its members to succeed through self-reliance. It gave people mutual support and welcomed them when white churches did not welcome them.
Pentecostalism emphasises the importance of family and community and values hard work which offers practical support for helping to cope with poverty and gives a sense of spirituality.

Question 31

Mirza- Islam as cultural defence

Answer 31

Many young muslims in the UK reinforce their faith by wearing the hijab, demanding separate Muslim faith schools and the introduction of Sharia law. They perceive the UK as a racist, islamaphobic society.

Question 31

Social deprivation and marginality as a reason for ethnic minority religiosity

Answer 31

• Ethnic minorities turn to religion because it offers a secure and solid source of identity and community.
• Older Asian women feel marginalised due to their poor grasp of English.
• Pakistani and Bangladeshi are poorest low income households.

Question 32

What is the relationship between age and religiosity?

Answer 32

Over 65’s are the most religious and young people 15-19 are least religious according to Church Attendance data.

Question 33

Why are the elderly more religious according to Voas and Crockett?

Answer 33

• The aging effect means as people become closer to death their interest in spirituality and what comes next increases. Leads to greater religiosity as people look for afterlife answers and forgiveness for sins.
• Generational effect means the elderly were more religious because their upbringing was less secure than the younger generation, there was war and massive social change, this is called existential security theory.

Question 34

Disengagement and elderly religiosity

Answer 34

Heelas and Woodhead argue as people get older they become disengaged from society (no participation in workplaces), they turn to religion for community where they can interact with people in common with them.

Question 35

Why are young people less religious according to Hervieu-Leger?

Answer 35

There has been a decline in religious obligation due to ‘cultural amnesia’ as now few parents teach their children about religion so they don’t have a fixed religious identity.
Voas adds to this suggesting this could be due to the growth of inter-faith marriages.

Question 36

Why are young people less religious according to Brieley?

Answer 36

87% of 10-14 year olds in 2015 felt that church was boring and they couldn’t relate to the rituals and traditional teachings, so they avoided attending

Question 37

Why are young people less religious according to Collins-Mayo?

Answer 37

Individualisation means religion has become more of a personal choice in post modern society so the young don’t feel pressured to affiliate themselves with a particular religion and prefer to spend their free time on leisure activities.

Question 38

Young people are religious

Answer 38

• Davies, belief without belonging
• There has been an expanded spiritual marketplace, where through the rise of NAM, young people can pick and mix elements of faith to fit their identity, thus exposing them to a wider diversity of religious ideas.

Question 39

Relationship between social class and religion

Answer 39

Ashworth and Farthing argue church-going is mainly associated with the middle classes because it is seen as a ‘mark of decency’ amongst the mc to attend church, showing how its part of their norms and values. Church attendance can be seen as a social activity.
2015 YouGov survey showed 60% who attended church were middle class vs 38% working class.

Question 40

Social deprivation and sects

Answer 40

Glock and Stark found that sects appealed to the most deprived and marginalised groups in society who suffered an economic, social, and physical deprivation. This is because sects compensate for the working classes lack of status or power in the workplace. Through the ‘theory of disprivilege’ sects promise compensation for peoples poverty in the form of salvation.

Question 41

Middle class and NAMs

Answer 41

Bruce argues NAMs and world affirming-NRMs appeal to the more affluent middle class because of its individualistic beliefs, and how it doesn’t require drastic changes so fits their busy lifestyle.
Heelas agues consumer culture has created a culture of discontent as people fail to find satisfaction in services, whereas NAM’s offer alternatives to seeking perfection with choice. This helps them seek security when there are rapid changes in modernity.
Middle class can afford to partake in NAM’s.