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chemistry 🧪 > organic chemistry 1 > Flashcards

organic chemistry 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what two types of structure can carbon form? (intro to organic)

A
  • rings
  • very long chains (may or may not be branched)
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2
Q

why can carbon form rings/chains? (intro to organic)

A
  • a carbon atom has four electrons in its outer shell, so it form four covalent bonds
  • carbon-carbon bonds are relatively strong (347 kJ mol-1) & are non polar
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3
Q

what is the strength & polarity of C-C bonds & C-H bonds? (intro to organic)

A
  • carbon-carbon = 347 kJ mol-1 & non-polar
  • carbon-hydrogen = 413 kJ mol-1 & non-polar
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4
Q

what happens to carbon in all stable carbon compounds? (intro to organic)

A
  • forms four covalent bonds
  • has eight electrons in its outer shell
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5
Q

define empirical formula & give ethanol’s empirical formula (intro to organic)

A
  • the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound
  • e.g. C2H6O
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6
Q

define molecular formula & give ethanol’s molecular formula (intro to organic)

A
  • tells us the actual numbers of atoms of each different element that makes up a molecule of a compound
  • e.g. C2H6O
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7
Q

define general formula & give the example for alcohols (intro to organic)

A
  • represents the composition of any member of an entire class of compounds
  • e.g. CnH2n+2O or CnH2n+1OH
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8
Q

define structural formula & give an example for ethanol (intro to organic)

A
  • bonds are not shown by each carbon atom is written separately with each atoms that are attached to it
  • e.g. CH3CH2OH
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9
Q

define displayed formula & give an example for ethanol (intro to organic)

A
  • the formula of the compound is drawn out so that each atom & each bond is shown
  • e.g. H H
    I I
    H—C—C—O—H
    I I
    H H
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10
Q

define skeletal formula & give an example for ethanol (intro to organic)

A
  • carbon chain is shown by lines with no carbons or hydrogens drawn (atoms or C-H bonds)
  • e.g. \ / O—H
    \ /
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11
Q

define 3D structural formula (intro to organic)

A
  • shows 3D structure of a molecule
  • bonds coming out of the paper are shown by wedges
  • bonds gong t into the paper are shown by dotted lines
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12
Q

what do curly reactions represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • shows the movement of electrons
  • starts from a lone pair of electrons or from a covalent bond
  • moved towards a positively charged area of a molecule to form a new bond
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13
Q

what are free radicals? (intro to organic)

A
  • fragments of a molecule where a covalent bond has broken so that one electron goes to each atom that originally formed the bond
  • the fragments have an unpaired electron & are usually extremely reactive
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14
Q

what is IUPAC & what did they develop? (intro to organic)

A
  • International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry
  • developed the system used for naming compounds
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15
Q

what does the root in a systematic name tell us? (intro to organic)

A
  • the longest I branched hydrocarbon chain/ring
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16
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘meth’ mean? (intro to organic)

A
  • 1 carbon
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17
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘eth’ represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • 2 carbons
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18
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘prop’ represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • 3 carbons
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19
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘but’ represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • 4 carbons
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20
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘pent’ represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • 5 carbons
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21
Q

how many carbons does the root ‘hex’ represent? (intro to organic)

A
  • 6 carbons
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22
Q

what do the syllables -ane & -ene represent when naming compounds? (intro to organic)

A
  • -ane means there are no double bonds
  • -ene means there is a double bond
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23
Q

what do prefixes/suffixes represent when naming molecules? (intro to organic)

A
  • describes the changes that have been made to the root molecule
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24
Q

what is the formula for the prefix ‘methyl’? (intro to organic)

A
  • CH3-
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25
Q

what is the formula for the prefix ‘ethyl’? (intro to organic)

A
  • C2H5-
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26
Q

what is the formula for the prefix ‘propyl’? (intro to organic)

A
  • C3H7-
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27
Q

what is the formula for the prefix ‘butyl’? (intro to organic)

A
  • C4H9-
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28
Q

what other prefix do hydrocarbon rings have? (intro to organic)

A
  • cyclo- (e.g. cyclohexane)
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29
Q

what is a functional group? (intro to organic)

A
  • the reactive group/s that are attached to hydrocarbon chains
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30
Q

does the length of a hydrocarbon chain affect the reactivity of its functional group? (intro to organic)

A
  • no
  • reacts in the same way regardless of the length of the hydrocarbon chain
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31
Q

what does the symbol R represent when naming compounds? (intro to organic)

A
  • represents a hydrocarbon chain of any length
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32
Q

what does a number/locant tell us about positioning in compounds? (intro to organic)

A
  • the position of any branching in a chain
  • the position of any functional group
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33
Q

how can you show if you have more than one of the same substituting group? (intro to organic)

A
  • by adding prefixes like di-/tri-/tetra-
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34
Q

what is a homogolous series? (intro to organic)

A
  • a family of organic compounds with the same functional group but different carbon chain lengths
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35
Q

does the length of a hydrocarbon chain affect a compounds chemical properties? (intro to organic)

A
  • no
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36
Q

does the hydrocarbon chain affect length affect a compound’s physical properties? (intro to organic)

A
  • yes
  • melting & boiling points increase by a small amount as the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases
  • in general small molecules are gases & larger ones are liquids/gases
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37
Q

how does chain branching affect melting point & why? (intro to organic)

A
  • reduced melting point
  • because the molecules can’t pack together as well/as closely
38
Q

what are isomers? (intro to organic)

A
  • molecules with the same molecular formula but in which atoms are arranged in a different way
39
Q

define structural isomerism (intro to organic)

A
  • isomers that have a different structural formula
40
Q

define stereoisomerism (intro to organic)

A
  • isomers that have the same structural formula but the 3D arrangement of atoms is different
41
Q

what are the different types of structural & stereoisomerism? (intro to organic)

A

structural
- chain
- positional
- functional group

stereo
- cis-trans/E-Z
- optical

42
Q

what is chain isomerism & what type of isomerism is it? (intro to organic)

A
  • the hydrocarbon chain in the isomers are arranged differently
  • type of structural isomerism
43
Q

what is positional isomerism & what type of isomerism is it? (intro to organic)

A
  • the functional group is attached to the man chain at different points
  • type of structural isomerism
44
Q

what is functional group isomers & what type of isomerism is it? (intro to organic)

A
  • there are different functional groups
  • type of structural isomerism
45
Q

what is E-Z isomerism & what type of isomerism is it? (intro to organic)

A
  • tells us about the position of substitute to at either end of a C=C bond
  • they may either be on the same side as the bond (Z, cis) or the opposite side (E, trans)
  • E- Z- isomers are separate compounds & are not easily converted to one another as their substituted groups can’t rotate around the double bond
  • type of stereoisomerism
46
Q

what is optical isomerism & what type of isomerism is it? (intro to organic)

A
  • pairs of molecules that are non-super impossible mirror images
  • occurs when there is an asymmetrical carbon within an organic molecule
  • type of stereoisomerism
47
Q

outline the 4 step process of naming organic compounds (intro to organic)

A
  • STEP 1: count up the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous carbon chain present in the molecule & then name the chain
  • STEP 2: name the branches (alkane = - H atom, so CH3 = methyl, CH2CH2 = ethyl etc)
  • STEP 3: indicate the number of branches (2 = di, 3 = tri)
  • STEP 4: give the position of the branches using the lowest possible number (e.g. 2-Methylbutane)
48
Q

outline the 3 step process of drawing organic structures (intro to organic)

A
  • STEP 1: draw the carbon atoms of the molecule
  • STEP 2: add the molecule’s substitutents
  • STEP 3: add the H atoms
49
Q

what is a saturated hydrocarbon? (alkanes)

A
  • a hydrocarbon that only contains C-C & C-H single bonds
50
Q

why are alkanes important to industry? (alkanes)

A
  • they are used as fuels, lubricants & starring materials for other compounds
51
Q

what is the main source of alkanes? (alkanes)

A
  • crude oil
52
Q

what is the general formula for alkanes? (alkanes)

A
  • CnH2n+2
53
Q

what is always the C-C-C angle in alkanes with unbranched chains? (alkanes)

A
  • 109.5˚
54
Q

where are the branches of branched chain alkanes located? (alkanes)

A
  • off the carbon atoms in the straight chain
55
Q

what is the general formula for ring alkanes & why? (alkanes)

A
  • CnH2n
  • because the end hydrogens aren’t needed
56
Q

which 3 alkanes have no isomers? (alkanes)

A
  • methane
  • ethane
  • propane
57
Q

what is the relationship between number of possible isomers & number of C atoms in alkanes? (alkanes)

A
  • after propane, the number of possible isomers increases with the number of carbon atoms in the alkane
  • e.g. butane (4 carbons) has 2 isomers & pentane (5 carbons) has 3
  • number of isomers increases rapidly with chain length
58
Q

what is the polarity of alkanes & why? (alkanes)

A
  • almost non-polar because the electronegativities of carbon & hydrogen are very similar
  • this means that the only intermolecular forces between the molecules are van der Waals forces
  • the larger the molecule, the stronger the VDW forces
59
Q

what is the boiling/melting points of alkanes & how do chain length & branching affect it? (alkanes)

A
  • increasing molecular forces causes the boiling point of alkanes to increase with chain length
  • alkanes with branched chains have lower melting points than straight chains with the same number of carbons
  • this is because they can’t pack together as closely, so the van der Waals forces aren’t as effective
60
Q

what state are short chain alkanes at room temperature & after how many carbons do they become solid? (alkanes)

A
  • short chain alkanes are gases at room temp
  • become solid after a chain length of 18 carbon atoms in the
61
Q

what is the solubility of alkanes & why? (alkanes)

A
  • are insoluble in water
  • this is because water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds, which are stronger the van der Waals forces active between alkane molecules
  • they do mix with other relatively non-polar liquids
62
Q

are alkanes reactive? Why/why not? (alkanes)

A
  • are relatively unreactive
  • they have strong C-C & C-H bonds
63
Q

what do alkanes react/not react with? What conditions do these occur in? (alkanes)

A
  • don’t react with acids, bases, oxidising agents & reducing agents
  • do react (via burning) with halogens under certain conditions
  • burn in a large supply of oxygen to form carbon dioxide & water (complete combustion)
  • burn with a restricted supply of oxygen to form carbon monoxide & soot (carbon) (incomplete combustion)
64
Q

what is a fraction? (alkanes)

A
  • a mixture of hydrocarbons that have similar chain lengths, & therefore similar properties
65
Q

outline the process of fractional distillation (5) (alkanes)

A
  • the crude oil is first heated in a furnace
  • a mixture of liquid & vapour passes into a fractionating tower. It is cooler at the top than at the bottom
  • the vapours pass up the tower via a series of trays containing bubble caps until they reach a tray that is at a lower temperature than their boiling point. They then condense to a liquid
  • the mixture of liquids that condenses on each tray is piped off
  • the thick residue that collects at the base is tar. It is useful for road surfacing, but supply exceeds demand so it is further processed to give more valuable products
66
Q

where in a fractioning tower do long & short chain hydrocarbons condense & why? (alkanes)

A
  • long chain = closer to the bottom (where it is hotter) as they have higher boiling points
  • short chain = closer to the top (where it is cooler) as they have lower boiling points
67
Q

what is fracking & why are some people opposed to it? (alkanes)

A
  • recovers gas & oil from shale rock by creating cracks in it
  • concern for amount of water used, concern over chemical additives polluting water supplies, burning naturist natural gas produces carbon dioxide
68
Q

what are the conditions for thermal cracking? (temp, pressure, catalyst & products) (alkanes)

A
  • temp = 700K - 1200K
  • pressure = 7,000 kPa
  • catalyst = no catalyst
  • products = alkanes & alkenes
69
Q

what happens during thermal cracking? (alkanes)

A
  • C-C bonds break so that one electron from each pair in the covalent bond goes to each carbon atom
  • two shorter chains are produced, each ending in a carbon atom with one unpaired electrons (these are called free radicals)
  • there are not enough hydrogen atoms to produce 2 alkanes, so alkenes with a C=C bond are produced
  • process produces a high proportion of alkenes
70
Q

what are the conditions for catalytic cracking? (temp, pressure, catalyst & products) (alkanes)

A
  • temp = 720K
  • pressure = <7,000 kPa
  • catalyst = zeolite
  • products = branched alkanes, cycloalkanes & aromatic compounds, in a lab = gases with a chain length <C5
71
Q

what type of catalyst is used in catalytic cracking? (alkanes)

A
  • zeolite
  • make up of silicon dioxide & aluminium oxide
  • has a honeycomb structure (for a large surface area)
72
Q

state some economic reasons for cracking (alkanes)

A
  • shorter chain fractions are more economically valuable than longer chain fractions
  • alkenes are used as chemical feedstock (starting materials for other products) & are converted into other compounds like polymers, & can also be used to make things like paints & drugs
  • longer chain fractions are not as useful & so have a lower economic value
73
Q

what is cracking? State the 2 types (alkanes)

A
  • breaking up long chain fractions onto shorter chain fractions
  • thermal cracking
  • catalytic cracking
74
Q

outline the complete combustion of alkanes (alkanes)

A
  • shorter chain alkanes burn in a plentiful supply of oxygen to give carbon dioxide & water
  • gives out heat & have large negative enthalpies
75
Q

what is a fuel & why are alkanes good fuels? (alkanes)

A
  • fuel: substance that releases heat energy when it undergoes combustion & stores a large amount of energy for a small amount of weight
  • alkanes are good fuels as the more carbons that are present, the greater the heat output
76
Q

outline the incomplete combustion of alkanes (alkanes)

A
  • in a limited supply of oxygen, alkanes burn to produce either carbon monoxide or soot (carbon) & water
  • soot is produced when there is an extremely limited supply of oxygen
  • IC often happens with longer chain hydrocarbons as they need more oxygen to burn compared to shorter chains
77
Q

state the equation for the reaction of N2 in an internal combustion engine & outline how it is produced (alkanes)

A
  • N2 (g) + O2 (g) —> 2NO (g)
  • produced when there is enough energy for nitrogen & oxygen in the air to combine
  • happens in a petrol engine at the high temperatures present
  • oxides may combine with water vapour in the air form nitric acid
78
Q

name some of the polluting products produced in internal combustion engine (alkanes)

A
  • carbon monoxide (CO)
  • nitrous oxides (NOx)
  • carbon dioxide (CO2)
  • water vapour
  • unburnt hydrocarbons
  • sulfur dioxide
79
Q

what are catalytic converters? How do they work? (alkanes)

A
  • all new cars with petrol engines are equipped with catalytic converters
  • CC = honeycomb shape & is made up of a ceramic material coated in rhodium & platinum metals
  • honeycomb shape provides a very large surface area, so little of the expensive materials needs to be used
  • as polluting gases pass over the catalyst, they react with each other to form less harmful products
  • these reactions take place on the surface of the catalyst, on the rhodium & platinum
80
Q

state the equations for reactions in a catalytic converters to remove NOx (alkanes)

A
  • carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxide —> nitrogen + carbon dioxide
  • 2CO (g) + 2NO (g) —> N2 (g) + 2CO2 (g)
  • hydrocarbons + nitrogen oxide —> nitrogen + carbon dioxide + water
  • (e.g.) C8H18 + 25NO —> 12.5NO + 9CO2+ 9H2O
81
Q

state the reaction of sulfur with oxygen (impurities in fossil fuels) & state why it is dangerous (alkanes)

A
  • SO2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) + H2O (l) —> H2SO4 (l)
  • fossil fuels contain sulfur compounds
  • one of the products of their combustion is sulfur dioxide (SO2)
  • SO2 causes acid rain by combining with oxygen & water to form sulfuric acid (shown in equation above)
82
Q

outline the two flue gas desulfurisation reactions (calcium oxide & calcium carbonate) (alkanes)

A
  • flue gas = gases given out by power stations
  • slurry of calcium oxide (lime) & water is sprayed into the flue gas, which reacts with the calcium oxide & water to form calcium sulfite
  • calcium sulfite is further oxidised into calcium sulfate (gypsum) that is used to make builder’s plater & plasterboards
  • CaO (s) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) —> CaSO4•2H2O (s)
  • method 2 = use calcium carbonate (limestone) instead of calcium oxide
  • CaCO3 (s) + 1/2 O2 (g) + SO2 (g) —> CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
83
Q

explain the greenhouse effect & what is meant by ‘carbon neutral’ (alkanes)

A
  • CO2 traps infrared radiation so the Earth’s atmosphere heats up
  • other greenhouse gases (e.g. water vapour & methane) are more effective than CO2
  • fossil fuels are now used to fuel industrial plants, so CO2 levels in the atmosphere have increased
  • this has caused the Earth’s temperature to gradually rise & therefore has caused global warming, according to scientists
  • increased temperatures causes increased levels of water vapour in the air, therefore more greenhouse warming
  • carbon neutral = activities that produce no emissions overall
84
Q

what are halogenoalkanes? (alkanes)

A
  • similar to alkanes but with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen
  • alkanes react under forms of UV light to produce halogenoalkanes
85
Q

what are primary, secondary & tertiary halogenoalkanes? (alkanes)

A
  • primary (1º) halogenoalkanes = has 1 R group attached to the carbon linked to the halogen
  • secondary (2º) halogenoalkanes = has 2 R groups attached to the carbon linked to the halogen
  • tertiary (3º) halogenoalkanes = has 3 R groups attached to the carbon linked to the halogen
86
Q

outline the initiation process in the free radical substitution of methane & chlorine, & explain why the C-H bond in the alkane doesn’t break (alkanes)

A
  • UV light is needed to break apart the Cl-Cl bond to form two highly reactive Cl atoms
  • each atom takes one electron from the bond & is now a free radical (which are highly reactive)
  • a dot is used to show an unpaired electron
  • e.g. Cl—Cl —> 2Cl•
  • the C-H bond in the alkane doesn’t break as it required more energy to overcome than the UV lamp can provide
87
Q

outline the two steps of the propagation process of free radical substitution (alkanes)

A
  • (1) the highly reactive chlorine free radical radical takes a hydrogen atom from the methane to form hydrogen chloride (a stable compound)
  • this leaves a methyl free radical (•CH3)
  • e.g. Cl• + CH4 —> HCl + •CH3
  • (2) the highly reactive methyl free radical reacts with a chlorine molecule
  • this produces another chlorine free radical & a molecule of chloromethane (a stable compound)
  • e.g •CH3 + Cl2 —> CH3Cl + Cl•
  • the new Cl free radical can start the process again = chain reaction
88
Q

what is the termination process in free radical substitution? State the equations that it can end in (alkanes)

A
  • when any two free radicals come together
  • when free radials are removed
  • Cl• + Cl•—> Cl2
  • •CH3 + •CH3 —> C2H6
  • Cl• + •CH3 —> CH3Cl
89
Q

what other products are produced by the free radical substitution chain reaction? Why isn’t the chain reaction useful? (alkanes)

A
  • some ethane is produced at the termination stage
  • dichloromethane may be made at the propagation stage is a chlorine free radical reacts with chloromethane that has already been formed
  • CH3Cl + Cl• —> CH2Cl + HCl followed by CH2Cl + Cl2 —> CH2Cl + Cl•
  • longer chain alkanes forms many isomers because the Cl• can replace any of the hydrogen atoms
  • chain reactions are not very useful because they produce such a mixture of products. They will also occur without light at high temperatures
90
Q

what is believed to be destroying the ozone layer? (alkanes)

A
  • chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
91
Q

what is ozone & why is the ozone layer important? (alkanes)

A
  • made up of 3 oxygen molecules
  • too much at ground level causes lung irritation & degradation of paints & plastics
  • important as it protects the Earth from harmful effects of too much exposure to UV rays
  • UV radiation causes skin cancer & plankton in the sea to die
92
Q

how do chlorine free radicals destroy the ozone layer? (alkanes)

A
  • chlorine free radicals are formed from CFCs as the C-FCL bond breaks homolytically in the presence of UV radiation to produce chlorine free radicals
  • ozone molecules are then attacked by chlorine free radicals (Cl• + O3 —> ClO• + O2)
  • the resulting free radicals also attack ozone & regenerate Cl• (ClO + O3 —> 2O2 + Cl•)
  • the chlorine free radical is not destroyed in the process & acts as a catalyst in the breakdown of ozone to oxygen (2O3 —> 3O2)

chemistry 🧪 (7 decks)

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