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Organic Flashcards

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1
Q

What is organic chemistry?

A

It is the study of carbon (organic) chemicals.

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2
Q

Describe the bonds that carbon can form…

A

The ability that carbon has to form so many bonds is unique among many elements.
Carbon has a covalence of four (can share 4 electrons e- to form 4 single covalent bonds).
It may form single, double or triple bonds with other carbon atoms and form straight chains, branched chains or rings.

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3
Q

What does it mean to be a saturated compound?

A

Only consist of single bonds between carbon atoms. This is known as a alkanes.

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4
Q

What does it mean to be an unsaturated compound?

A

At least one double or triple bond in chain or ring form. This is known as either alkenes or alkynes.

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5
Q

What are the suffixes from 1-9?

A

methan, ethan, propan, butan, pentan, hexan, heptan, octan, nonan,

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6
Q

What is the suffix of an alcohol?

A

-ol

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7
Q

What is the suffix of an aldehyde?

A

-al

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8
Q

What is the suffix of an ketone?

A

-one

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9
Q

What is the suffix of an carboxylic acid?

A

-oic acid

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10
Q

What is the suffix of an carboxylate ion?

A

-oate ion

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11
Q

What is the suffix of an ester?

A

-yl oate

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12
Q

What is the suffix of an amine?

A

-amine

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13
Q

What is the suffix of an amide?

A

-amide

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14
Q

What are the prefixes if a molecule contains multiple alkyl groups?

A

di-, tri-, tetra-

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15
Q

How are the multiple alkyl groups arranged?

A

In alphabetical order.
Not including the prefixes di, tri and tetra

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16
Q

Describe the impact of increase carbon chain on boiling and melting point…

A

As the carbon chain increases, so does the molar mass and hence the strength of the dispersion forces within the molecule.

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17
Q

Why do alcohols have a higher boiling point compared to aldehydes and ketones?

A

Alcohols contain Hydroxyl groups (OH) which can form hydrogen bonds with neighbouring molecules. Hydrogen bonding is stronger than the dipole dipole bonds aldehydes and ketones can form.

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18
Q

What is the functional group of an alcohol?

A

OH

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19
Q

What are the three classifications of an alcohol?

A

Primary, secondary and tertiary.

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20
Q

What classifies an alcohol as primary?

A

If the C atom that the -OH group is bonded to, is only bonded to one other C atom (R group).

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21
Q

What classifies an alcohol as secondary?

A

If the C atom that the -OH group is bonded to, is only bonded to two other C atom (R group).

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22
Q

What classifies an alcohol as tertiary?

A

If the C atom that the -OH group is bonded to, is only bonded to three other C atom (R group).

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23
Q

What is the definition of oxidation in organic chemistry?

A

Oxidation can be considered as something that adds oxygen, or increases the number of oxygen bonds.

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24
Q

What reagent allows for a primary/secondary alcohol to be distinguished from a tertiary alcohol?

A

Acidified dichromate

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25
Q

What is the chemical formula for Acidified dichromate?

A

Cr2O7^2-/H+

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26
Q

State the reaction and describe the colour change reaction of acidified dichromate.

A

Cr2O7^2- + 14H+ +6e- -> 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

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27
Q

What are the products of the oxidation of primary alcohols?

A

Aldehyde and the carboxylic acid.
*on arrow of reaction Cr2O7^2-/H+ with a delta H on bottom

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28
Q

What is the product of the oxidation of secondary alcohols?

A

A ketones
* on arrow of reaction Cr2O7^2-/H+ with a delta H on bottom

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29
Q

What is the product of the oxidation of a tertiary alcohol?

A

It cannot be oxidised.

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30
Q

What functional group do aldehydes and ketones contain?

A

A carbonyl group (c=o)

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31
Q

What is the difference between an aldehyde and a ketone?

A

The carbonyl group of an aldehyde is terminal. Whereas the carbonyl group for a ketone is not terminal.

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32
Q

How are ketones formed?

A

Through the oxidation of secondary alcohols.

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33
Q

How are aldehydes formed?

A

Through the oxidation of primary alcohols. However, when forming aldehydes through oxidation the products must be removed (distilled off) as soon as it is formed. This prevents further oxidation to a carboxylic acid. This can also be done by using less harsh oxidation conditions.

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34
Q

What product is formed when an Aldehyde is oxidised in acidic conditions?

A

In acidic conditions a carboxylic acid is produced.

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35
Q

What product is formed when an Aldehyde is oxidised in basic conditions?

A

In basic conditions a carboxylate ion is formed (deprotonated carboxylic acid).

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36
Q

What are the two different solutions that can be used for the oxidation of aldehydes?

A

Acidified potassium dichromate and tollens reagent.

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37
Q

What will happen if an aldehyde is reacted with tollens/acidified dichromate reagent?

A

Aldehydes will react as they can form an additional carbon-oxygen bonds, forming a carboxylic acid.

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38
Q

What will happen if an ketone is reacted with tollens/acidified dichromate reagent?

A

No reaction.

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39
Q

What is a carbohydrate?

A

They are naturally occurring sugars and their polymers.
They are a simple sugar unit which contains either a ketone or aldehyde functional group, as well as multiple hydroxyl groups.

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40
Q

What is the general formula for a carbohydrate?

A

CxH2yOy

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41
Q

What are the two carbohydrate names?

A

Polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxylketones.

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42
Q

Which carbohydrate is glucose?

A

Polyhydroxyaldehyde.

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43
Q

Which carbohydrate is fructose?

A

polyhydroxyketone

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44
Q

Why can carbohydrates form polymers?

A

They have functional groups within the carbohydrates which poses the ability to polymerise.

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45
Q

What is a monosaccharide?

A

They are single unit carbohydrates.

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46
Q

What is a disaccharide?

A

Two polymers conjoined.

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47
Q

What is a polysaccharide?

A

They are polymers of repeating carbohydrate units.

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48
Q

What are the two forms that the monosaccharides and disaccharides can exist in?

A

Cyclic (ring) or linear (chain)

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49
Q

What is the difference between the cyclic and linear monosaccharide forms?

A

The ring form breaks to allow the cyclic structure to turn into the linear form whihc contains the functional group when depending on the group it would react with tollens to form silver mirror.

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50
Q

Why are the chain and cyclic forms solid in room temperature?

A

They consist of large amounts of hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups.
This includes glucose, galactose and fructose.

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51
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

Via a condensation reaction (losing water) between two cyclic monosaccharides.
It can be broken down into two monosaccharides by a hydrolysis reaction (consuming water).

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52
Q

Draw the condensation reaction between glucose and fructose (SLIDE 38)

A
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53
Q

How are polysaccharides formed?

A

They are formed by condensation reactions of many monosaccharides catalysed enzymatically.
They can be broken down into mono, di- and tri- saccharides by hydrolysis with water and an enzyme.
These include starch, cellulose, glycogen and amylose.

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54
Q

Does hydrogen bonding have high or low melting point and boiling point?

A

High

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55
Q

Is hydrogen bonding very soluble or not?

A

Very soluble

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56
Q

How do you identify the repeating unit on a polysacchride?

A

Square brackets with an n on the bottom right.

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57
Q

What is the general hydrolysis equation?

A

(C5H10O5)n + nH2O -> nC5H12O6

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58
Q

List the order of solubility from least to most for monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

A

Least:
polysaccharides (dispersion forces over take hydrogen bonding)
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides

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59
Q

What happens if the dispersion forces out weigh the hydrogen bonding?

A

The saccharides will be not soluble if a large carbon chain.

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60
Q

Describe the solubility of monosaccharides…

A
  • They consist of many polar hydroxyl (-OH) groups that can undergo extensive hydrogen bonding with polar water molecules.
  • Small molecules - weaker secondary forces, therefore, easily separated in water.
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61
Q

Describe the solubility of disaccharides…

A
  • Many polar hydroxyl (-OH) groups that can undergo extensive hydrogen bonding with polar water molecules.
  • Small molecule - weaker secondary forces, therefore, easily separated in water.
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62
Q

Describe the solubility of polysaccharides…

A
  • Many polar hydroxyl (-OH) groups that can undergo extensive hydrogen bonding with polar water molecules.
  • Larger molecules - stronger secondary forces, therefore, harder to separate polysaccharide molecules in water.
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63
Q

What is the functional group of a carboxylic acid? - Draw

A

C with a double bonded O and an OH

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64
Q

What is the suffix of a carboxylic acid?

A

-oic acid

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65
Q

What is the suffix of a carboxylate ion?

A

-oate ions

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66
Q

What is the functional group of a carboxylate ion? - Draw

A

C with a double bonded O and a O-

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67
Q

Draw the process of oxidising a primary alcohol

A
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68
Q

Are carboxylic acids strong or weak?

A

Weak acids as they partially ionise within water.
The process is in equilibrium that favours the far left, thus only a small portion of carboxylic acid molecules ionise to form carboxylate ions.

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69
Q

Draw the ionisation of carboxylic acid

A
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70
Q

What are the three equations of neutralising carboxylic acids?

A

Neutralisation by hydroxide:
RCOOH + OH- ⇌ RCOO- + H2O

Neutralisation by carbonate ions:
RCOOH + CO3 2- ⇌ RCOO- + CO2 + H2O

Neutralisation by hydrogen carbonate ions:
RCOOH + HCO3 - ⇌ RCOO- + CO2 + H2O

These reactions occur fast at room temperature and are exothermic
Carbonate and hydrogen carbonate reactions produce carbon dioxide leading to effervescence (bubbling) occurring

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71
Q

Describe the solubility of carboxylate salts

A

Carboxylic acids can only form hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are weaker intermolecular interactions than ion dipole interactions
Charge of an ion is much stronger than the partial on a dipole.
Large organic molecules with carboxylic acid functional groups are likely to be insoluble in water. If the carboxylic acid is neutralised to form carboxylate salt, it can be made soluble in water.

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72
Q

Describe a pharmaceutical drug which includes a carboxylic acid…

A

These are taken as carboxylate salts.
There is as the carboxylate ion is soluble in water and therefore the drug can be transported in the blood (a water based solvent).
This only occurs as the salt is water soluble.

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73
Q

What is the functional group of an amine?

A

N with two hydrogens attached.

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74
Q

What is the suffix of an amine?

A
  • amine
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75
Q

What is a primary amine?

A

The N is only attached to one carbon.

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76
Q

What is a tertiary amine?

A

A N attached to three other Cs.

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77
Q

What is a secondary amine?

A

A N attached to two other Cs.

78
Q

How do amines act as bases?

A

Nitrogen atoms in an amine contains a non-bonded electron pair which can accept a hydrogen ion acting as a base.
The resulting protonated form of the amine is called an ammonium ion. It has a positive charge and can dissolve in water

79
Q

Describe the solubility of amine salts?

A
  • Amine salts are ionic compounds composed of an ammonium ion (protonated amine) and some anion
  • Due to the positively charged ammonium ion, they can undergo ion-dipole interactions with polar water molecules as the positively charged ammonium ion attracts the negative dipole of water molecules.
  • Amines (not protonated) can only form hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecules which are weaker than ion-dipole bonds.
80
Q

Describe the importance of amine drugs being soluble in drug mechanisms…

A

Pharmaceuticals with amine functional groups are taken as amine salts.
Pronated amines are soluble in water and therefore the drug can be transported in the blood (water based)
Benadryl, an antihistamine, containing an amine functional group has a high molar mass and few polar functional groups (not water soluble)
Converting the amine to an amine salt makes it water soluble.

81
Q

What is the suffix of an ester?

A

the alcohol has the -yl the carboxylic acid has the -oate

82
Q

What is the functional group of an ester?

A

A C with a bonded O and a double bonded O.

83
Q

How are esters formed?

A

Esters are formed from reactions between alcohols and carboxylic acids.
This process can occur through esterification or condensation (water is generated as a product).
The alkyl groups on either side of the ester group are from the carboxylic acid and alcohol.
The alkyl group attached to the carboxyl (-C=O) end come from the carboxylic acid
The alco group attached to the –C-O- end come from the alcohol.

84
Q

Draw the reaction of the formation of esters…

A
85
Q

What is a reflux?

A

The reactants and products are volatile (have low boiling points) and will vaporize with heating causing them to be lost from the reaction vessel
Reflux apparatus is used to overcome this
Allows reactants to be heated over a long period of time without minimal loss due to evaporation of reactants/products
Vapors from the pear-shaped flask rise into the condenser which cools them back to a liquid and return it to the reaction mixture.
In esterification reactions, trace amounts of concentrated acid are used as a catalyst.

86
Q

What is reflux used for?

A

It is used to overcome the volatility of the solution.

87
Q

What is the round bottom flask within the reflux reaction used for?

A

Holds the reaction mixture. Its shape helps distribute heat evenly, preventing hot spots.

88
Q

What is the condenser within the reflux reaction used for?

A

It cools and condenses the vapours generated during the reaction. The vapours rise into the condenser, where they are cooled by water through the jacket surrounding the inner tube. The condensed liquid then flows back into the reaction flask, maintaining the volume of the reaction mixture.

89
Q

What is the purpose of the heating source within the reflux reaction?

A

It provides consistent heat to the reaction mixture. In a reflux, the goal is to maintain a controlled temperature to facilitate the reaction.

90
Q

What is the purpose of the reflux ring within the reflux reaction?

A

An observable ring of condensate that forms in the condenser, making the highest point the vapour reaches before condensing. It ensures that the system is working as expected.

91
Q

What is the purpose of a water inlet and outlet within a reflux reaction?

A

It is connected to the condenser to allow the continuous flow of cool water around the vapour tube, facilitating the condensation of vapour.

92
Q

What is the hydrolysis of esters?

A
  • Ester hydrolysis is the reverse of condensation reactions.
  • An ester can be hydrolysed to produce a carboxylic acid and alcohol.
  • This process is called hydrolysis as water is used as a reactant (thus is consumed)
  • The products of ester hydrolysis are different depending on whether the reaction takes place in acidic or basic conditions.
  • This needs to be a catalysed process, it cannot happen naturally.
93
Q

What do the products of ester hydrolysis depend on?

A

Whether the reaction takes place in acidic or basic conditions.

94
Q

What are the products of acidic condition ester hydrolysis?

A

Carboxylic acid and alcohol

95
Q

What are the products of basic condition ester hydrolysis?

A

Carboxylate ion and an alcohol.

96
Q

Draw the ester hydrolysis in acidic conditions…

A
97
Q

Draw the ester hydrolysis in basic conditions…

A
98
Q

What is the suffix of an amide?

A

-amide

99
Q

What is the functional group of an amide?

A

C with a double bonded O, this C is also attached to an NH, (-CONH-)

100
Q

Describe the process of the formation of amides…

A
  • Amide formation is like the formation of esters, however the alcohol is swapped with an amine.
  • A condensation reaction (water is produced) between a carboxylic acid and an amine leads to the formation of an amide.
  • Water is formed from the –OH group of the acid and a hydrogen atom from the amine
101
Q

Describe the process of amide hydrolysis…

A

Amides can be hydrolysed to produced to carboxylic acids and an amine.
This reaction is called a hydrolysis reaction, as water is one of the reactants.

102
Q

What are the products of amide hydrolysis in acidic conditions?

A

carboxylic acid and a protonated amine.

103
Q

What are the products of amide hydrolysis in basic conditions?

A

A carboxylate ion and an amine.

104
Q

What are triglycerides ?

A

They are fats and oils derived from plants and animals.
They are triesters, (molecules containing three ester functional groups, which are formed from the reaction of propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol) and three long, straight chain carboxylic acids (called fatty acids).

105
Q

Draw the reaction for the formation of triglycerides

A
106
Q

What is the difference between esterification and transesterifcation?

A

Esterification is only forming of ester bonds but transesterification is forming and cleaving of bonds.

107
Q

What are fatty acids?

A

Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms (usually between 12 and 20) and are unbranched (no side chains)

Fatty acids can be saturated (no double bonds), monounsaturated (one double bond) or polyunsaturated (multiple double bonds).

108
Q

Describe the solubility of triglycerides…

A

Due to the large lengths of carbon chains on the fatty acids triglycerides are insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar/organic solvents (dispersion forces are much stronger).

109
Q

When do the properties of triglycerides change?

A

When the source is different.

110
Q

Describe the properties of a fat?

A

At 25 degrees it is a solid.
Derived from animals.
Its carbon chain is a greater % of saturation.

111
Q

Describe the properties of a oil?

A

At 25 degrees it is a liquid.
Derived from plants or fish.
Its carbon chain is a greater % of unsaturation.

112
Q

Describe saturated fatty triglycerides…

A

They contain only single bonds, therefore have straight carbon chains.
They are packed together closely, increasing dispersion forces.
It has a higher melting point and therefore solids at room temp.

113
Q

Describe unsaturated fatty triglycerides…

A

Contain at least one double or triple bonds and have kinks in the carbon chain.
Packed together less closely, decreasing dispersion forces.
Lower melting points and therefore liquids at room temp.

114
Q

What molecules can undergo addition reactions with group seven elements (cl2 and Br2 or H2)

A

Carbon chains with the alkene functional group.

115
Q

What happens when bromine solution is added to a solution containing unsaturated molecules?

A

There is a loss of colour. If a loss of colour is not observed then the molecule is already saturated.

116
Q

How can the degree of unsaturation of a triglyceride be measured?

A

By determining the mass of bromine that reacts with a triglyceride.

OR

Measure using the iodine number.
Represent the mass of iodine (12) that reacts with 100g of a triglyceride.
The higher the number the higher degree of unsaturation.

117
Q

What is the process oil hydrogenation?

A
  • Hydrogenation is a process used to convert liquids and oils into solid fats by reducing the degree of unsaturation.
    This is the process used to turn oil to margarine
  • Decreasing the number of double bonds, increases the dispersion forces (less kinks in the chain)
  • The process of hydrogenation is simply an alkene addition reaction with hydrogen being added to the alkene.
    Breaks an alkene and inserts hydrogen.
118
Q

What is the process triglyceride hydrogenation?

A

Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen gas is added across a carbon-carbon double bond.
Really slow at room temperature.
Carried out at high temp, pressure and in the presence of a Nickle based catalyst.
The final product may still have some degree of unsaturation but will be a solid at room temp.
Reducing kinks in chain increases dispersion forces consequently decreasing melting point and boiling points.

119
Q

What is the process triglyceride hydrolysis in acidic conditions?

A

As triglycerides contain ester function groups, they can undergo hydrolysis reactions to give the alcohol (glycerol) and either the fatty acids or the carboxylate forms of the fatty acids.
- The products of this are acid solutions, glycerol (propen-1, 2, 3 -triol) and three carboxylic acids are formed.

120
Q

What is the process triglyceride hydrolysis in basic conditions?

A

As triglycerides contain ester function groups, they can undergo hydrolysis reactions to give the alcohol (glycerol) and either the fatty acids or the carboxylate forms of the fatty acids.
- The products of this are alkaline (basic) solutions, glycerol (propen-1, 2, 3 -triol) and three carboxylate ions (salts) are formed.

121
Q

What is the process of natural hydrolysis of triglycerides?

A

The hydrolysis of triglyceride is carried within humans utilizing the enzyme Triacylglycerol lipase.
Enzymatically catalyses the sequential hydrolysis of triglycerides.
In the lab, high temps and either concentrated acid or basic solutions to perform a hydrolysis reaction.

122
Q

Describe the carboxylate ion produced through basic hydrolysis of triglycerides.

A

There is a carboxylate ion carbon chain tail which is non polar and hydrophobic.
And there is a carboxylate ion head which is anionic (negatively charged) and hydrophilic

123
Q

Describe the how micelles interact with water…

A

The long non-polar hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (water hating) and the anionic end/head group is hydrophilic (water-loving)

These carboxylate ions arrange themselves to form micelles containing a non-polar core and a polar surface.
Non-polar (hydrophobic) core results from the tails pointing inwards to get away from aqueous solution.
Negative (hydrophillic) head results from the charged end of the carboxylate ions wanting to form ion-dipole interactions with the aqueous solution.

124
Q

Describe the how micelle formation prevents soap from doing its job…

A

Soap is a common surfactant used to form micelles around oil particles.
- Hydrophobic tails penetrate oil droplets on the surface of dirty dishes whilst the hydrophilic head exists in the aqueous solution.
- Micelle then forms around the oil droplets.
- The negatively charged surface of the micelle repels any adjacent micelles (negative –negative charge repulsion).
- Breaking up grease/oil particles into water soluble micelles
- The micelles are washed away in the water leaving dish surface clean.

125
Q

Describe how micelle formation is used for drug transport…

A
  • Polymers with a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end can be used to create micelles.
  • Polymers micelles are excellent mediums to transport non-polar drugs around the body.
  • Blood being an aqueous medium would not readily transport non-polar compounds around the body.
  • Positioning a non-polar drug in the centre of a hydrophobic micelles leads to the negatively charged hydrophilic heads be able to interact with the aqueous blood.
  • Consequently, allowing for the transport of non-polar drugs using micelle capsule within blood
126
Q

What are amino acids?

A

Amino acids are the monomers (building blocks) of proteins and enzymes.
Each amino aid contains a central carbon atom (called the alpha or a) with an amine functional group, a carboxyl functional group, a hydrogen atom and an R group side chain.

127
Q

Describe the linkages of amino acids…

A

Amino acids can be linked together to form peptide chains which, depending on the size, can go on to form specific chemical machines known as enzymes.
Enzymes are what nature has chosen to catalyse many biological processes.

128
Q

Describe the relationship between zwitterions and amino acids…

A

Amino acids have both an acidic functional group (-COOH-) and a basic functional group (-NH2).
The carboxylic acid can donate protons.
The amine can accept protons.

This leads to interesting ionisation consequences that is dependent on pH.

Amino acids are in a constant flux between its ionic zwitterion form and its neutral form.

129
Q

How are peptide linkages formed?

A

Amino acid groups are linked by peptide bonds between carboxylic acids and amines.
A condensation reaction to form an amide functional group links the two amino acids forming a dipeptide (a peptide consisting of two amino acids).
The amide functional group which joins amino acids is commonly referred to as a peptide link or a peptide bond.
The other product, water, is generated from the reactions between carboxylic acid and amine functional groups.

130
Q

What are proteins?

A

Proteins are very large molecules containing different amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
Proteins usually contains a variety of 20 amino acids found in nature. Proteins are also called polypeptides or polyamides.
The formation of amides in the laboratory is difficult and requires reflux (i.e. high temperature).
In natures these linkages are formed by enzyme catalysts built from proteins.

131
Q

What are different protein interactions?

A

The peptide link/amide functional group in proteins and any side chains (the R group) containing:
-NH
C=O
-COOH
-OH
These can undergo hydrogen bonding to other functional groups on the same protein, different proteins or water. This dictates how the peptide bends to form its protein structure.

132
Q

What are the four levels of protein structure?

A

Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure

133
Q

What is protein structure?

A

The four levels of protein structure are dictated by the intermolecular interactions (hydrogen bonding) that can be formed between amino acid residues with a poly peptide chain.

134
Q

What is primary protein structure?

A

The linear sequence of amino acids linked together by a single polypeptide chain (no folds or intermolecular interactions).

135
Q

What is secondary protein structure?

A

The structure of localized regions of the polypeptide chain. The most common structures are α–helices and β–pleated sheets

136
Q

What is a α–helices secondary protein structure?

A

A spiral shape held together by hydrogen bonding between the –NH group of a peptide bond and a –C=O group of a peptide bond four amino acids along in the chain.

137
Q

What is a β-pleated sheet secondary protein structure?

A

Two adjacent regions of the polypeptide chain form a pleated structure held together by hydrogen-bonding between the –NH groups and –C=O groups in the peptide bonds. These are easier to form.

138
Q

What is a tertiary protein structure?

A

The 3D structure of a single polypeptide chain. This is determined by:
Covalent bonds (disulfide bridges)
Ionic bonds
Secondary interactions (hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces
Between the amino acid side chains (R group) within the same polypeptide chain.

139
Q

What is a quaternary protein structure?

A

The three-dimensional structure of several polypeptide chains packed together.

Often a protein is composed of more than one polypeptide chain. For example, DTBS in tuberculosis exists as a dimer (two of the same polypeptide chains).

140
Q

What is protein denaturation?

A

A protein’s structure ultimately determine its function, 3D shape of a protein determine how it interacts with a molecule.

As changes in temperature or pH can directly affect how a peptide chain may undergo secondary interactions (i.e. disrupting them), the structure (secondary, tertiary and quaternary) is altered.

This in turn affects the protein ability to function or the protein is denatured.

141
Q

What is protein denaturation regarding pH change?

A

There is often hydroxyl groups and aiming functional groups within a protein chain. In a low pH environment this aim group will become proton so then have a positive chart. This positive chart would repel other positively sections and attract any sections which are negatively charged hence changing the shape and function of the enzyme, in a high environment the hydroxyl group would be prate a hydrogen hence attracting any positively charged sections and repelling. Any negatively charged sections. This would also change the shape and hence function. Therefore increasing or decreasing pH would alter the shape of the enzyme and then the function so denaturing the protein.

142
Q

What is protein denaturation regarding temperature change?

A

Increasing temp disrupts the secondary interaction in a protein.
Increasing temp causes increase in kinetic energy (movement) of the atoms, causing the destabilization of secondary interactions.

143
Q

What are polymers?

A

Polymers are large molecules made up of many monomers joined together.
Polymers are named by adding the prefix“poly-” to the name of the monomer.

144
Q

What are the two main reactions used to form polymers?

A

Addition reactions
Condensation reactions

145
Q

What are addition polymers?

A

Polymers formed through addition polymerisation (the linking of monomers together) are referred to as addition polymers.
The features of an addition polymerization are:
Monomers containing a carbon –carbon double bond (-C=C-)
Double bonds broken during polymerization to form a single bonded backbone (-C-C-)
An initiator, heat and pressure are required.

146
Q

What are condensation polymers?

A
  • Polymers formed through condensation polymerisation (the linking of monomers together) are referred to as condensation polymers.
  • The features of an addition polymerisation are:
  • Monomers contain two different functional groups that can undergo a condensation reaction (-OH and –COOH or –NH2 and –COOH)
  • Water is lost during polymerisation reaction
  • Include polyesters and polyamides.
147
Q

What are the differences between addition and condensation polymers?

A

Addition polymers:
Monomer: (-C=C-)
Polymer: (-C-C-C-C-C-)

Condensation Polymers
Monomer: contain (-OH) and (-COOH) or (-NH2) and (-COOH).
Polymer: contain either ester or amide functional groups between repeating units.

148
Q

What are polyesters?

A

Polyesters contain ester functional groups that link monomers to form a polymer which can be formed using either two different monomers or two of the same monomers.

149
Q

Describe the polyesters with two different monomers…

A

a diol (two –OH) and a dicarboxylic acid (two –COOH groups)

150
Q

Describe the polyesters with two of the same monomers…

A

A hydroxycarboxylic acid (one –OH group and one COOH group)

151
Q

What are polyamides?

A

Polyesters contain an amide functional group that link monomers to form a polymer which can be formed using either two different monomers or two of the same monomers.

152
Q

Describe the polyamides with two different monomers…

A

a diamine (two –NH2 groups) and a dicarboxylic acid (two –COOH groups)

153
Q

Describe the polyamides with two of the same monomers…

A

An amino carboxylic acid (one ––NH2 group and one COOH group)

154
Q

What are the two different types of polymers?

A

Natural or synthetic

155
Q

What are natural polymers?

A

Natural polymers are made by plants or animals (hair, silk DNA and starch).

156
Q

What are synthetic polymers?

A

Synthetic polymers have a wide variety of uses as they can be customised to have specific properties (plastics, fibres, paints, lubricants, adhesives and foams).

157
Q

What are the customisable features that can alter the properties of polymers?

A

As synthetic polymer properties can be tailored, they have become used in the place of more traditional materials (i.e. metals and glass) and in place of natural polymers (i.e. cotton and wool).

Chain lengths
Branching side chains
Cross-linking
Polarity of side chains
Additive such as dyes and UV adsorbers

158
Q

How do you break addition polymers?

A

Using pyrolysis

159
Q

How do you break condensation polymers

A

hydrolysis

160
Q

What are the disadvantages of synthetic polymers?

A
  • They can be susceptible to UV degradation.
  • Polymers are heat sensitive (especially thermoplastics).
  • Polymers are non-biodegradable.
161
Q

What are the advantages of synthetic polymers?

A
  • Polymers replacing glass are cheaper and less dense.
  • Polymers replacing metal car parts are cheaper, less dense and do not corrode.
  • Polymers replacing wool and cotton for textiles and carpets are cheaper and more durable.
162
Q

Describe the bonding between polymer chains…

A

Bonding between polymer chains is determined by the polarity of branching group (side chains) and the main chain links.

163
Q

Describe the dispersion forces within polymers…

A
  • Dispersion forces are present between polymer chains with non-polar side groups and non-polar main chain links (i.e. addition polymers).
  • As the length of the polymer chain increases, strength of dispersion forces increases (larger MW = stronger dispersion forces).
  • Polymers that only have dispersion forces between chains are soft, flexible and non-elastic (can be stretched out of shape).
  • Have low melting and softening points and can be reshaped with heat.
    These are thermoplastics.
164
Q

Describe the hydrogen bonding within polymers…

A

Hydrogen bonding is present between polymer chains containing:
N-H
O-H
C=O
in the side groups or main chain links (i.e. condensation polymers).

Hydrogen bonds are strong than dispersion forces, therefore, the resulting polymers are stronger, more rigid and more elastic than polymers with dispersion forces between chains.

165
Q

Describe the covalent bonding (cross-links) within polymers…

A

Covalent bonds between polymer chains are called cross-links.
As the number of cross-links increases, the rigidity, elasticity and hardness of the polymer increases.
Cross links can be formed during polymerization or after polymerization with a cross linking agent.

166
Q

What are thermoplastics?

A
  • Covalent bonds between polymer chains are called cross-links
  • As the number of cross-links increases, the rigidity, elasticity and hardness of the polymer increases
  • Cross links can be formed during polymerization or after polymerization with a cross linking agent.
167
Q

What determines whether something is a thermoset or thermoplastic?

A

Depending on the interactions between polymer chains, a thermoset or thermoplastic polymer is generated.

168
Q

What is a thermoset?

A
  • Contain a high degree of cross-linking.
  • Will char or burin if heated sufficiently as covalent bonds break and the polymer decomposes .
  • Cannot be recycled.
169
Q

How do you produce synthetic polymers?

A
  • Most synthetic polymers are produced from petrochemicals (chemicals produced using a petroleum feedstock).
  • Responsible for around 6-8% of the total global petrol production is used to produced synthetic polymers.
170
Q

What are the advantages of producing polymers?

A
  • Fossil fuels are relatively abundant feedstock.
  • Petroleum is relatively easily extracted and processed.
  • They are existing industries, infrastructure and processing techniques for producing polymers from petroleum.
  • There are a wide variety of polymers (with a wide variety of uses) produced from petroleum.
171
Q

What are the disadvantages of producing polymers?

A
  • Petroleum is a non-renewable resource/feedstock.
  • The reserves of petroleum are being used at a much faster rate than they are being naturally replenished.
172
Q

What polymers are being developed to compensate for the overuse of fossil fuels?

A

Polymers derived from plants (biomass) a renewable feedstock.
Examples currently being used include starch and cellulose (polysaccharides) and proteins and oils (triglycerides).

173
Q

What are the advantages of biomass derived polymers?

A
  • Plants/crops are a renewable feedstock.
  • Plants/crops are a relatively abundant feedstock.
  • Plants/crops are easily extracted and processed.
  • By-products or waste products from farming crops can be used as the source of biomass.
174
Q

What are the disadvantages of biomass derived polymers?

A
  • This is a new area of research and there are a limited number of polymers derived from plants/crops that are currently being produced.
  • The production of synthetic biopolymers from plant/crops may complete directly with land for food production.
175
Q

What are biodegradable polymers?

A
  • Due to the presence of strong covalent carbon-carbon bonds (mainly addition polymers), many synthetic polymers are not biodegradable.
  • Biodegradable polymers can be broken down naturally in the environment. These include all natural polymers (cotton, cellulose, nucleic acids, proteins) and some synthetic polymers (mainly condensation polymers
    Polymers containing ester (-COO-) or amide (-CONH-) functional groups can be hydrolysed causing the polymer to break down into smaller molecules.
  • These smaller molecules are oligomers (multiple monomer units), dimers (two monomer units ) or monomers.
  • Hydrolysis is catalysed by enzymes secreted from microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
176
Q

What are photodegradable polymers?

A
  • Installing light sensitive molecules or carbonyl groups (C=O) into polymers make polymers photodegradable.
  • Large number of carbonyl groups and light sensitive molecules will break down when exposed to UV light.
  • Can be installed during synthesis process to ensure biodegradable properties.
177
Q

What are the advantages of biodegradable polymers?

A
  • reduces the amount of waste in landfill.
  • when decomposed, can be used as fertiliser for growing crops.
178
Q

What are the disadvantages of biodegradable polymers?

A
  • There are currently a limited number of synthetic polymers that are biodegradable.
  • Oxygen and water are required for decomposition this will not happen if buried deep in landfill.
  • Greenhouse gases are released during decomposition.
179
Q

What is used to oxidise aldehydes?

A

Acidified dichromate
H+/Cr2O72-

180
Q

Name and draw the shape carboxylate ions form in water

A

Carboxylates with long hydrocarbon tails are surfactants.

They have a non-polar hydrophobic tail and a polar hydrophilic head (carboxylate ion).

These form micelles in aqueous environments (the hydrophilic head faces out and the hydrophobic tail in and they form a circle).

181
Q

How can micelles make a non-polar substance soluble in water?

A

The hydrophobic non-polar tails of the surfactants are soluble in non-polar substances such as oils. This is then agitated to encapsulated within the centre of the micelle.
The hydrophilic head is soluble in water and the negative charge repulses from other micelles suspending the non-polar substance within the water.

182
Q

What functional groups allow for addition polymers to undergo polymerisation?

A

Alkene functional groups

183
Q

Draw glucose in cyclic and linear form…

A
184
Q

Draw fructose in cyclic and linear form…

A
185
Q

Describe the process of reflux

A

Vapours from the pear-shaped flask rise into the condenser which cools them back to a liquid and return it to the reaction mixture.

186
Q

What is the colour change of iodine in solution?

A
187
Q

Why would changing an amino acid within an enzyme may make it unable to act as a catalyst?

A

Secondary interactions in the protein are affected.
3D arrangement of protein is changed.
Shape impacts the enymze properties.
Shape impacts the active site of enzymes, changing its function and hence causing denaturation.

188
Q

What is meant by the term reflux?

A

To boil a mixture of reacting liquids for an extended period of time using a
vertically placed condenser to return the more volatile components to the reaction
vessel.

189
Q

Provide an example of a reaction where reflux is necessary…

A

The reaction is slow, so prolonged heating is necessary to attain equilibrium
more quickly. Reflux prevents loss of volatile reactants and products.

190
Q

What is the boiling chip in reflux used for?

A

To promote smooth boiling and prevent superheating.

191
Q

Explain how increasing temperature affects the biological functions of an enzyme..

A

Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the atoms within the enzyme. This energy is sufficient enough overcome inmolecular bonds (hydrogen bonds) within the enzyme, destabilising and denaturing it. Therefore, the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of the enzyme is affected disrupting the enzymes biological function.

Chemistry (4 decks)

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