Organ Systems and Plants Flashcards
Anatomy of Animals
Why do we need oxygen?
We need oxygen for cellular respiration
Oxygen is required to break down Glucose.
Cellular Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 602 → 6H2O + 6CO2 + Energy
Respiration - why do we need it?
For single cellular organisms, they do not need one.
We are too large
Insects breathe through small holes that allow oxygen into their bodies.
Earthworms breathe oxygen by diffusing it through their skin
Human Respiratory System
Four Important Parts
Thin permeable respiratory membrane through which diffusion can occur.
Large surface area for gas exchange
Good blood supply
Breathing system which brings oxygen-rich air.
Breathing system: lungs
Lungs increase surface area where gas enters the body.
At end of branching bronchus and bronchioles are alveoli.
Alveoli are small sacs surrounded by small blood vessels→ capillaries
Allows oxygen to enter the blood system and carbon dioxide to leave.
Inhale/ Exhale Lungs
The diaphragm is a muscle located beneath the lungs which increases and decreases the volume of the pleural cavity.
Inflates and deflates the lungs.
What if the Pleural Cavity is punctured?
If the pleural cavity is punctured, air can enter it.
If there is air, the lung will not inflate.
Lung Capacity
Total Lung Capacity:
maximum volume of air that can be inhaled in a single breath.
Lung Capacity
Tidal Volume
volume of air inhaled and exhaled after normal inhalation
Inspiratory Reserve Volume Lungs
volume of air that can be forcefully inhaled after normal inhalation.
Expiratory Reserve Volume Lungs
volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal exhalation.
Gills Lungs
Fine feather-like structures that allow water to flow over them while capillaries carry blood in the opposite direction
Water loses oxygen so that it has less oxygen after flowing over gills.
Lesson 2: Gas Exchange
The total pressure of gases is made up of partial pressures of each individual gas.
Partial pressure of O2 in the alveoli is much higher than in blood, which means O2 wants to flow in blood.
When blood reaches the body cells, it diffuses into cells → there is a lower pressure of O2.
Opposite for CO2
Since blood absorbs oxygen, there is a higher concentration.
Role of Red Blood Cells
1.5% of oxygen is carried in the blood plasma and 98.5% of the oxygen is carried by red blood cells.
Hemoglobin is a molecule found in red blood cells that bonds with oxygen carrying more.
This increases amount of oxygen in cells by 70x from 0.3 per 100mL to 200mL.
Control of Breathing
Regulated by brain stem can be overridden in certain circumstances.
Brain stem signals diaphragm and muscles.
Asthma
Chronic inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles.
A response to foreign substances entering the lungs and reduces airflow to lungs.
Mucus gets produced.
A person with asthma would have a more severe reaction.
Inflammation can be reduced by steroidal inhalers which open airways
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Affects 1.5 million Canadians.
A chronic disease that involves the obstruction of the alveoli reducing the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed through the lungs.
Pneumonia
When an infection enters the lungs, the body responds by filling with pus and mucus to try and contain the infection.
Mucus prevents the gas exchange from happening.
If coughing is constant it can tear lungs.
Cystic Fibrosis
A genetic disorder that causes defective mucus production in the respiratory system.
Lung Transplant
Difficult organ to transplant (first happened in 1983).
Bodies may reject new lung.
Lesson 3: Digestive System
Nutrients:
a chemical that an organism needs to consume to survive.
4 main nutrients
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Vitamins and minerals
Carbohydrates
Compounds made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
The main source of quick energy
Typically 6 rings, but can be smaller or linear.
3 Main Types Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides: 1 carbon ring
Disaccharides: 2 rings
Polysaccharides: chain of 2 or more rings
Proteins
Makes up the majority of you as a human.
Proteins are made of chains of amino acids.
Our body can always make 4 of the amino acids which are called non-essential amino acids.
Our body can make 7 depending on your food source, called conditional non-essential.
Our body cannot make 9 amino acids. These are called essential amino acids.
Fat & 3 Types Fat
Long, hydrocarbon chains.
Saturated: every carbon is bonded to hydrogens with only single bonds. Solids at room temperature. Long and flat and stick to each other.
Trans-unsaturated: there is at least one trans double bond. Fats stick very well.
Cis-unsaturated: at least one cis-double bond. Makes a ‘kink’ in the chain making them harder to stack. Liquids at room temperature.
Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins are organic that the body requires in small amounts.
Minerals are elements ex. Calcium + Phosphorus.
2 Main Types Vitamins and Minerals
Fat soluble: not easy to eliminate from the body so high levels can become toxic. Vitamins A,E,D,K
Water soluble: rapidly are expelled from the body since they cannot be stored in fat, need to be replenished daily. Vitamins B and C
What Our Body Does With Nutrients
Metabolism: a set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
Catabolism: metabolic reactions that break down nutrients into smaller molecules.
Anabolism: metabolic reactions that use energy to produce larger molecules from smaller ones
Metabolic rate at which body converts stored energy into working energy.
Unit we use to measure energy.
kilojoules.
We can convert KJ to calories. One calorie =
is 4.18 KJ. Typical adult needs 2000-2800 Calories a day.
Early Digestive System
One of first= gastrovascular cavity
A hollow compartment in the body of jellyfush or medusa.
The cavity is lined with cells that metabolic processes.
Later on, the cavity developed a second opening→ first digestive tract.
Human Digestive Tract
The human gastrointestinal tract is a system of organs that work to break down food and absorb them into the body where they can be converted into energy.
Lesson 4: Digestive System: Organs
Consists of
Mouth and salivary glands Pharynx and esophagus Stomach Small and large intestines Liver Gall Bladder Pancreas
Mouth
Mouth breaks the food into digestible fragments
Saliva contains enzymes to break down food.
Esophagus
When bolus is swallowed, epiglottis folds up to cover the larynx, which is an entry to the trachea.
The esophagus is composed of muscles that push the food down the esophagus to the stomach.
Muscles contract behind the bolus, preventing it from going backwards→ peristalsis
Stomach
Lined by three layers of muscles that contract to help break apart the food.
Food= digested by stomach acid secreted by mucosal lining of the stomach.
Small Intestines
After stomach, it enters the duodemun→ start of small intestines.
Small Intestines= duodenum, jejunum, Ileum.
Absorbing Nutrients
Surface area for intestines increase by
Forms by folds that form lining of intestines.
On each fold are finger-like projections called villi.
On each vili, there are thousands of microvilli which are smaller finger-like projections.
Large Intestines
Moisture of food is absorbes: dries out the bowels
3 Main Components Large Intestines
Ascending Colon
Transverse Colon
Descending Colon
Stored in rectum, out through anus.
Liver, Gall Bladder and Pancreas
Liver: main purpose is to produce buile
Bile= chemical that emulsifies fats-> faster breakdown by enzymes called lipases produced by liver.
Bile→ stored in gall bladder, then released slowly as intestines need bile.
Pancreas produces enzymes to break down sugar in bloodstream→ insulin.
The Circulatory System
3 Types of blood vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Hearts went from two chamber hearts to 4 chambered hearts. What do 4 chambers do to increase efficiency
4 chambers increase the efficiency of heart by making sure that oxygenated blood and unoxygenated blood do not mix.
Mammals: 2 Circuit
One circuit takes blood to and from the lungs.
Other circuit takes blood to and from the body.
2 circuit system makes sure that blood leaving the body does not go back into the body before reaching the lungs.
Structure of the Heart
Right atrium collects blood from the body via superior
+ inferior vena cava.
Pumps blood into right ventricle→ pumps blood into lungs bia left + right pulomary arteries
Blood returns from lungs via pulomary veins + enters left atrium which collecgts blood and carries to left ventricle.
Left ventricle them pumps the oxygenated blood to body via aorta
Blood can’t go backwards.
Arteries
Carry blood from heart
Means blood in them is at higher pressure than in veins
They need thicker walls to strethc
Arteries 3 Layers
Endothelium: inner lining
Smooth Muscle: muscles contract to make sure the blood pressure stays high so blood doesn’t stop moving
Conncective tissue: outer lining
Cappillaries
Smallest diameter blood vessels, typically width of a red blood cell so that diffusion will happen more easily.
These vessels will run everywhere through the body because they want to reach every cell.
When you get cut, it is cappillaries that are cut.
Veins:
Blood vessels that return blood to heart
Veins are furthest from heart= less pressure + smaller
Blood flows against gracity in veins, they use valves to make sure blood doesn’t go back ad down beat on the heart
To help blood go up, leg muscles squeeze to raise pressure
4 Major Components of Blood
Red blood cells (erythrocytes): carry oxygen + carbon dioxide around body.
responsible for bodies immune response which fights infection.White blood cells (leukocytes)
Platelets: small cell fragments that stack together to repair damaged blood vessels and promote cell growth.
Plasma: liquid component of cell that carries nutrients throughout the body.
Unit 5: Lesson 1: Intro to Plants
Characteristics of Plants
They can’t move
Use photosyntesis→ Carbon dioxide + water → glycose + oxygen
Mechanisms to defend themselves
Shoot System
above ground→ where photosynthesis + reproduction happens. Consists of stem, leaves, and flowers
Root System:
below ground, responsible for anchoring the plant and collecting water + nutrients from the ground.
3 Types of Plant Tissues
Dermal Tissue: outer lining of plant, cells suallly have thicker wallls → rigidity. Covered in waxy cuticle.
Vascular Tissue: Xylem (transports water) and phloem (transports nutrients + sugar).
Ground tissue: 3 types
Parenchyma: thin cell walls, performs functions to grow plant.
Collenchyma: thick cell walls, usually dead at maturity, plant rigidity.
Sclerenchyma: hard cell walls that are usually dead at maturity, makes the plant rigid.
Meristematic Tissue
Organs in animals can grow at the same rate.
Plants grow at top + bottom + around stem
At growth regions, meristematic cells are found.
Like stem cells in animals.
Xylem
hollow tubes that transport water up plant, composed of dead cells that grew end to end and left behind their cell wall.
Phloem:
living cells that actively regulate the direction and flow rate of nutruents up and down the plant
Plhoem have pores at the top and bottom of each cell that allow these fluuids to move.
Types of Vascular Plants
3 Groups
ycophytes + pteridophytes: club mosses, ferns + relatives
Gymnosperms: conifers
Angiosperms: Flowering plants
Structure of leaves
2 Main Types in Vascular Plants
Monocot leaves: veins run parallel to each other.
Eudicot leaves: Branching veins throughout leaf.
Leaf is Broken Into:
Palisade cells: majority of photosynthesis occurs
Spongy Mesophyll cells: loosely packaged cells. Perform photosynthesis + allow gases to come and go.
Veins: transporst water + and nutrients
Stoma: holes on bottom of leaves that allow gas to enter + leave the leaf.
Epidermis: “skin” layer on top + bottom of transparents cells.
Waxy Cuticle: prevents water loss.
Herbaceous Stems Plants
Non- woody stems found on plants (not trees).
Soft and flexible
Made of all three tissue types.
Vascular Bundles Plants
are groups of xylem and phloem that travel the length of stem transporting fluids.
Ground Tissue:
bulk of stem → supports +stores nutrients,
Dermal Tissue:
surronds stem → protection from predaators
Woody Stems
Found in trees + more complex than herbaceous stems
Woody Stems Consistes of
Vascular cambium= layer of meristematic cells around stem. Each year produces new xylem and phlowem on inside + phloem on outside.
Heatwood: centre of tree→ made of dead vascular tissue.
Sapwood: outer layer of still functioning vasucalr tissue.
Cork Cambium: layer of Meristematic tissue near outside of stem, produces cork.
Bark: made of cork, cambium and some ploem.
Roots Types:
2 Main Types
Tap roots: one central root which grows straight down + lateral roots growing out.
Fibrous rootsL mesh of roots that grow in variety of directions.
Both types have root hairs: microscopic extensions of root epidermal layer that grows to tyr to increase surface area of root toincrease water absorption.
Root Structure
Roofs have 2 layers of epidermal cells separated by a cortex.
Responsible for transporting the water + nutriends to vascualr tissue in centre of root.
Inner epidermis has a waxy Casparian strip that runs around endodermis creating a watertight seal preventing water from escaping the vascular cylinder.
Vascular bundles = in centre of the root.
Lesson 2: Transpiration Plants
Fluid Transportation in Plants
Sugars are transported in phloem while nutrients dissolved in water can be found in xylem and phloem.
Soil water and any nutrients it has dissolved in it are transported up the tree by xylem.
Nutrients pass between xylem and phloem as needed.
Capillaries
Water= polar molecule= + and - side to it.
Means water is ‘sticky’ and likes to adhere to surfaces.
As the diameter of container gets smaller, water will climb up walls more.
Xylem= narrow tubes→ water easily climbs stem.
Transpiration
Since trees are so tall, capillary action is not enough to bring water up such long distances.
When water reaches leaves of a tree, about 90% of it evaporates out through the stomata on the bottom of leaves.
Evaporation ‘pulls’ water behind it into the leaf.
Sugar Transport
In spring, sugar is transported up the stem to provide energy to grow leaves.
In summer + fall, sugar is transported away from leaves to be stored in root + stems in sink cells
Sink cells are attached to companion cells that surround phloem. They convert sugars to starch.
The reason why starch is created is that starch is insoluble in water, so it cannot go back into phloem without being converted back into sugar.
Lesson 3: Succession + Asexual Reproduction
Succession: gradual change of species over time.
Can happen from volcanoes
Primary succession occurs when plants and animals start populating eveironments→ pioneer species.
Usually moss or lichen.
Trees are the last part of succession.
Once they are added, it is a climax community.
Secondary succession: the recovery of a damaged ecosystem.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Grass reproduces asexually.
Asexually: one parent
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Ways
The plant produces rhizomes: modified stems that grow off existing roots→ new plants.
Roots can grow new stems to create a new individual.
