Oregon SAR (WASCO) Flashcards
According to ORS chapter 404, who is legally responsible for Search and Rescue in
Oregon?
The sheriff of each county.
Who has the authority to close access to the search area?
The Incident Commander or a designated representative has the authority to close access to a search and rescue area.
What Legal Statute protects SAR personnel in a duty to act in that setting?
In Oregon, the primary legal statute protecting SAR personnel in their duty to act is the Oregon Good Samaritan Act (ORS 30.800).
The “Duty to Act” for a SAR volunteer means:
In Oregon, the “Duty to Act” for a SAR volunteer refers to the legal and ethical obligation they have to respond to a search and rescue mission when called upon by the appropriate authority (typically the Sheriff’s office or County Emergency Management).
This means that if a volunteer is available and qualified to participate in a rescue operation, they are expected to respond to the call for assistance.
When can you use mechanized equipment in a wilderness area?
Emergencies: Mechanized equipment can be used in emergency situations involving fire suppression, health and safety concerns, law enforcement pursuits, removal of deceased persons, or aircraft accident investigations.
Legal responsibility for the acts of others that are under your control or direction is called what?
Vicarious liability
When a search area would require entering private property, the SAR volunteer should?
Obtain permission from the landowner: The most important step is to get explicit consent from the property owner before entering. This can be done verbally or in writing. If the owner is not present, attempt to contact them by phone or other means.
Coordinate with law enforcement: If unable to obtain permission, or if the situation is urgent, SAR volunteers should coordinate with law enforcement. In some cases, law enforcement may be able to obtain a warrant for entry if there is probable cause to believe the missing person is on the property.
Document entry and search: It’s essential to document the entry onto private property, including the date, time, and reason for the search. This information can be useful for legal purposes and for debriefing after the search.
What type of clothing should be worn on SAR missions?
Layering:
Base layer: Moisture-wicking fabric to keep you dry (e.g., merino wool or synthetic materials).
Insulation layer: Fleece or down jacket for warmth.
Outer layer: Waterproof and windproof shell to protect against the elements.
Visibility:
Bright colors: Choose bright colors like orange or red to increase visibility, especially in low-light conditions or dense vegetation.
Reflective elements: Reflective strips or patches can help you be seen at night.
Footwear: Sturdy hiking boots or shoes with good ankle support.
Headwear: Hat for sun protection or beanie for warmth.
Gloves: Depending on weather conditions, gloves can protect your hands and provide grip.
Pants: Consider pants made from durable materials like ripstop nylon or canvas. Some SAR teams recommend wearing pants with integrated gaiters to prevent debris from entering your boots.
Shirts: Long-sleeved shirts are generally preferred to protect against sun, bugs, and scratches. Look for shirts with breathable fabric.
Jackets: Depending on the weather, a lightweight rain jacket or a heavier insulated jacket might be necessary.
If a search member is injured, becomes lost or shows signs of an environmental illness
such as hypothermia, altitude sickness or heat exhaustion:
Assess the situation: Quickly evaluate the severity of the injury or illness and the immediate environment. Determine if the situation is life-threatening and requires immediate evacuation.
Provide first aid: If qualified, administer appropriate first aid to stabilize the injured or ill member. This may include treating for hypothermia, providing oxygen for altitude sickness, or cooling and hydrating for heat exhaustion.
Call for help: Immediately notify the Incident Commander or team leader of the situation. If necessary, activate emergency protocols and request additional resources, such as a medical team or helicopter evacuation.
Stabilize and monitor: While waiting for assistance, continue to monitor the injured or ill member’s condition and provide ongoing care as needed. Keep them warm, hydrated, and comfortable.
Evacuate if necessary: If the situation is critical or deteriorating, initiate evacuation procedures. Follow established protocols for transporting the injured or ill member to a safe location for further medical assessment and treatment.
Document the incident: Thoroughly document the incident, including the nature of the injury or illness, the first aid provided, and the actions taken to address the situation. This information is crucial for debriefing and future safety planning.
What are the three elements that are necessary for fire?
Heat: A source of ignition to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition point.
Fuel: Any combustible material that can burn, such as wood, paper, or gasoline.
Oxygen: This is necessary to sustain the chemical reaction of combustion.
What is the minimum amount of water that a SAR member should carry into the field on
a mission?
A general guideline is to carry enough water to last for 24 hours. This means having at least 2 liters (or about half a gallon) of water.
Some SAR teams recommend carrying a minimum of 3 liters (about 0.8 gallons) of water for any mission, regardless of the expected duration.
List as three methods to purify water in the field.
Boiling: The simplest and most reliable method. Bring water to a rolling boil for at least 1 minute (3 minutes at higher elevations) to kill most bacteria, viruses, and protozoa.
Chemical Treatment: Using iodine tablets, chlorine dioxide tablets, or drops of bleach (unscented and without additives) can effectively disinfect water. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for dosage and contact time.
Filtration: Portable water filters can remove bacteria, protozoa, and some viruses, depending on the filter type and pore size. Look for filters that meet EPA standards for microbiological purification.
Which of the previous three methods of water purification is most effective?
Boiling is generally considered the most effective method for water purification in the field.
The fundamentals of survival in a non-urban environment are:
Shelter: Protection from the elements (rain, wind, sun, cold) is crucial. This could mean building a temporary shelter, finding natural formations like caves or overhangs, or using a survival blanket.
Water: Staying hydrated is essential for survival. Knowing how to find, collect, and purify water sources like streams, rivers, or rainwater is critical.
Fire: Fire provides warmth, a way to cook food, purify water, signal for help, and can provide a psychological boost. Knowing how to start and maintain a fire in different conditions is vital.
Food: Foraging for edible plants, setting traps or snares for small animals, and fishing are potential ways to obtain sustenance. Knowledge of edible and poisonous plants is important.
Signaling: If lost or injured, being able to signal for help can be lifesaving. This could involve using a mirror to reflect sunlight, building a smoky fire, or using a whistle.
On a VHF radio, what does the frequency number (such as 146.5020 MHz) represent?
On a VHF radio, the frequency number (like 146.5020 MHz) represents the specific channel or wavelength that the radio transmits and receives signals on. This particular frequency is measured in megahertz (MHz) and falls within the “two-meter” band commonly used for amateur radio communication.
What does a Frequency length represent?
A frequency’s wavelength represents the physical distance between two consecutive peaks (or troughs) of a radio wave. It’s inversely proportional to the frequency, meaning higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.
On a VHF radio, a stored frequency is called a what?
On a VHF radio, a stored frequency is commonly called a channel.
What is the function of a repeater?
A repeater is a combination of a radio receiver and a radio transmitter that receives a weak signal and re-transmits it at a higher power or on a different frequency, thus extending the range of radio communication.
What meant by the term “manual radio relay”?
“Manual radio relay” refers to a communication method where a person or team relays a radio message by:
Receiving: They receive a transmission from one source on a specific frequency.
Re-transmitting: They then manually re-transmit the message on a different frequency or to a different location that the original signal may not have reached.
How does weather affect the performance of the battery on your portable radio?
Cold Weather:
Reduced Capacity: Cold temperatures slow down the chemical reactions within the battery, reducing its overall capacity and shortening its lifespan. This means your radio may not last as long on a single charge in cold weather.
Slower Charging: Batteries also charge slower in cold temperatures, so it may take longer to recharge your radio.
Temporary Voltage Drop: Extreme cold can cause a temporary drop in voltage, leading to reduced performance or even shutting down the radio.
Hot Weather:
Accelerated Degradation: High temperatures can accelerate the chemical degradation of the battery, permanently reducing its capacity over time.
Increased Self-Discharge: Heat also increases the rate of self-discharge, meaning your battery will lose its charge faster even when not in use.
Risk of Overheating: In extreme heat, the battery could overheat, potentially causing damage or even posing a safety risk.
How does terrain and structures interfere with radio transmissions?
Terrain and structures can interfere with radio transmissions in several ways:
- Obstructions:
Line-of-Sight: VHF/UHF radio signals typically travel in a straight line (line-of-sight). Hills, mountains, buildings, and dense forests can block these signals, creating “shadow zones” where communication is difficult or impossible.
Diffraction: While radio waves generally travel in straight lines, they can bend or diffract around obstacles to some extent. However, this bending is limited and the signal strength weakens significantly as it diffracts.
2. Reflections:
Multipath Fading: Buildings, metal structures, and even bodies of water can reflect radio waves. This can create multiple paths for the signal to reach the receiver, causing interference and signal fading. The different paths can also cause the signal to arrive at slightly different times, leading to distortion and garbled audio.
3. Absorption:
Dense Vegetation: Trees and other vegetation can absorb radio waves, especially at higher frequencies. This is why it can be difficult to communicate in dense forests or jungles.
Building Materials: Some building materials, like concrete and metal, can also absorb radio waves, making it harder for signals to penetrate indoors.
Unless otherwise specified, radio transmissions during search missions should be in:
Unless otherwise specified, radio transmissions during search missions should be in plain English. This means avoiding codes, jargon, or abbreviations that might not be understood by all members of the team. Clear and concise communication is essential for effective coordination and safety during search operations.
When team members need to converse with one another during non-essential events
they should:
When team members need to converse with one another during non-essential events, they should:
Switch to a designated non-emergency channel: This helps keep the primary channels clear for critical communication related to the search operation.
Keep conversations brief and relevant: Be mindful of others who may need to use the radio. Avoid lengthy discussions or personal conversations that are not related to the task at hand.
Use appropriate language: Maintain professionalism and avoid using inappropriate or offensive language.
Follow established protocols: Each SAR team may have specific protocols for non-essential communication, so be sure to follow those guidelines.
One of the primary frequencies used in searches is the Oregon State SAR, known as
SAR Orange. This is:
The primary frequency used in searches in Oregon, known as SAR Orange, is 155.805 MHz FM.
In general, how should the antenna on a portable radio be position for best transmission and reception?
For the best transmission and reception on a portable radio, the antenna should generally be positioned:
Vertically: Holding the antenna upright maximizes its effective length and allows it to capture or radiate signals more efficiently.
Unobstructed: Keep the antenna as clear of obstructions as possible. Avoid holding the radio close to your body or other objects that could block the signal.
Elevated: If possible, raise the antenna higher, such as by holding the radio above your head. This can help overcome obstacles and improve the line-of-sight to the receiving or transmitting station.
Directional: Some antennas are directional, meaning they transmit or receive signals more strongly in a particular direction. If you know the general direction of the other station, try pointing the antenna towards it.
What can you do to improve your radio performance when you are having transmitting or receiving issues?
To improve radio performance when experiencing transmitting or receiving issues, you can try the following:
For transmitting issues:
Check the battery: Ensure your radio has sufficient battery power, as low power can weaken transmissions.
Adjust the squelch: The squelch control filters out background noise when no signal is present. Adjust it to reduce static and improve clarity.
Increase power output: Some radios allow you to adjust the power output. Increase it to boost your signal strength.
Change location: Move to a higher elevation or a clearer area with fewer obstructions.
Try a different frequency: Interference on your current frequency may be affecting transmission.
Check the antenna: Ensure the antenna is fully extended and in good condition. If it’s damaged, replace it.
For receiving issues:
Adjust the squelch: As mentioned above, adjust the squelch to reduce background noise and improve signal clarity.
Change location: Move to a higher elevation or a clearer area with fewer obstructions.
Try a different frequency: Interference on your current frequency may be affecting reception.
Check the antenna: Make sure the antenna is fully extended and in good condition. If it’s damaged, replace it.
Use a better antenna: If you’re using the built-in antenna, consider using an external antenna for better reception.
Check for interference: Identify and eliminate sources of interference, such as electronic devices or power lines.
Several types of maps can be used in Search and Rescue (SAR) operations, each offering different information and advantages depending on the situation:
Topographic Maps: These maps show terrain features like elevation contours, hills, valleys, and water bodies. They are essential for understanding the landscape and planning search routes.
Orthophoto Maps: These are aerial photographs that have been corrected to show accurate ground distances and scale. They provide detailed visual information about the terrain, vegetation, and man-made structures.
Trail Maps: If the search area includes trails or paths, trail maps can be useful for navigating and identifying potential areas where the subject may have traveled.
Custom SAR Maps: SAR teams may create their own maps using GIS (Geographic Information System) software. These maps can be tailored to the specific needs of the search, incorporating data on terrain, vegetation, previous searches, and other relevant information.
GPS Maps: GPS devices can display digital maps and provide real-time location tracking, which is invaluable for navigation and recording search routes.
USGS Maps: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) produces a variety of maps, including topographic maps and orthophoto maps, that can be useful for SAR operations.
OSARID (Oregon Search and Rescue Incident Database): This online platform allows SAR coordinators in Oregon to view and edit information about search and rescue incidents, including maps of search areas.
A map township and range section is a square that is:
A map township and range section is a square that is one mile by one mile (or approximately 1.6 km by 1.6 km).
Each section contains 640 acres. A township consists of 36 sections arranged in a 6-by-6 grid, making it 6 miles by 6 miles. This system, known as the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), was used to divide land in the western United States for sale and settlement.
What does UTM stand for?
UTM stands for Universal Transverse Mercator. It’s a plane coordinate grid system used to identify locations on the Earth.
What are the three most commonly used coordinate systems?
The three most commonly used coordinate systems are:
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS): This system uses latitude and longitude to define locations on the Earth’s surface. Latitude measures the angle north or south of the equator, while longitude measures the angle east or west of the prime meridian.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): This system divides the Earth into 60 zones, each 6 degrees of longitude wide. Within each zone, locations are identified by an easting (distance east of the zone’s central meridian) and a northing (distance north of the equator). UTM is often used for mapping and surveying because it provides accurate measurements over relatively small areas.
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS): This system is specific to the United States and divides each state into zones. Each zone has its own coordinate system, making it easier to measure distances and areas within a state. SPCS is commonly used for legal descriptions of property and for engineering projects.
While these are the most common systems, there are many other coordinate systems used for specific purposes, such as the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), which is used by the military for navigation and targeting.
UTM coordinates are divided into grid squares of:
UTM coordinates are typically presented in grid squares of 100,000 meters (100 kilometers). However, these can be further subdivided into smaller squares for more precise location identification:
100,000 meter squares: These are the basic grid squares identified by a grid zone designator (e.g., 10T) and a two-letter code.
1,000 meter squares: These are subdivisions of the 100,000 meter squares, often marked on topographic maps with tick marks or grid lines.
100 meter or 10 meter squares: These are further subdivisions used for even more precise location measurements.
The specific size of the grid square used will depend on the level of precision required for the particular application. For example, military applications might use 100 meter or even 10 meter grid squares, while general navigation might only require 1,000 meter squares.
How does UTM measures the world?
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system measures the world by dividing it into 60 zones, each 6 degrees of longitude wide. These zones are numbered from 1 to 60, starting at the International Date Line and moving eastward.
Within each zone, UTM uses a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system to identify locations. This system consists of:
Easting: A measurement in meters indicating the distance east from the central meridian of the zone.
Northing: A measurement in meters indicating the distance north of the equator.
To avoid negative numbers, the equator is assigned a northing of 0 meters in the northern hemisphere and 10,000,000 meters in the southern hemisphere. The central meridian of each zone is assigned an easting of 500,000 meters.
This system allows for accurate and consistent measurement of locations within each zone, with minimal distortion due to the Earth’s curvature. However, because the Earth is a sphere, there is some distortion near the edges of each zone.
Here’s a simplified example of how a UTM coordinate might look:
Zone: 10T
Easting: 654321 meters
Northing: 4789012 meters
This coordinate would pinpoint a specific location within zone 10T, approximately 654 kilometers east of the zone’s central meridian and 4,789 kilometers north of the equator.
What different map datums are used by SAR?
Search and Rescue (SAR) teams commonly use several different map datums, depending on the region, the age of the maps, and the available technology:
NAD 27 (North American Datum of 1927): This is an older datum that was widely used in the United States until the 1980s. It is still found on many older topographic maps and may be used by some SAR teams in areas where those maps are still relevant.
NAD 83 (North American Datum of 1983): This is a newer datum that is more accurate than NAD 27 and is widely used in the United States for modern mapping. Many GPS devices can use NAD 83 as a reference datum.
WGS 84 (World Geodetic System of 1984): This is a global datum that is used by the Global Positioning System (GPS). It is the default datum for most GPS devices and is often used in conjunction with UTM coordinates.
What is the most important reason that all of the search resources on a mission use
the same map datum and coordinate system?
The most important reason for all search resources on a mission to use the same map datum and coordinate system is to ensure accurate and consistent location information. This allows for:
Effective Communication: All team members can easily share and understand location information, avoiding confusion and potential errors.
Precise Navigation: Searchers can accurately navigate to specific points on the map, improving efficiency and reducing the risk of getting lost.
Efficient Coordination: Resources can be allocated and directed more effectively based on precise location data.
Seamless Integration of Data: Data from different sources (e.g., GPS, maps, aerial imagery) can be integrated and analyzed more easily, leading to better decision-making.
If different datums or coordinate systems are used, it can lead to significant errors in location measurements, causing confusion, miscommunication, and potentially jeopardizing the success of the search operation.
The advantages of using a GPS unit are:
The advantages of using a GPS unit in Search and Rescue (SAR) are numerous:
Precise Location: GPS provides accurate real-time coordinates, allowing rescuers to pinpoint their location and the location of the subject(s) they are searching for. This eliminates guesswork and increases the efficiency of the search.
Navigation: GPS enables rescuers to navigate through unfamiliar terrain, even in low visibility or challenging conditions. It helps them plan routes, track their progress, and avoid getting lost.
Data Collection: GPS units can record track logs, waypoints, and other data that can be used to analyze the search effort, create maps, and improve future operations.
Communication: Some GPS units have built-in communication features, allowing rescuers to send and receive messages, share location information, and request assistance.
Safety: GPS can enhance the safety of SAR teams by providing a reliable way to track their location and ensure they can find their way back to base. It can also be used to mark hazardous areas or establish exclusion zones.
Efficiency: By using GPS, SAR teams can save valuable time and resources by optimizing search patterns, avoiding redundant searches, and quickly locating subjects in need of rescue.
Versatility: GPS units are portable and can be used in a variety of environments, from dense forests to open water. They can also be integrated with other SAR tools, such as mapping software and drones.
Limitations of using a GPS unit are:
While GPS units are incredibly useful tools in search and rescue (SAR) operations, they do have some limitations:
Signal Obstruction: GPS signals can be blocked or weakened by dense foliage, steep terrain, buildings, or even weather conditions. This can lead to inaccurate readings or a complete loss of signal.
Battery Life: GPS units rely on batteries, which can drain quickly, especially in cold weather or with continuous use. This can be a significant issue in prolonged search operations.
Accuracy Limitations: While GPS technology is generally accurate, it can still have errors due to atmospheric conditions, satellite geometry, or the device itself. These errors can be significant in some situations.
Overreliance: Overreliance on GPS can lead to complacency and a lack of situational awareness. It’s important to remember that GPS is just a tool and should not be used as a substitute for good navigation skills and judgment.
Environmental Factors: GPS signals can be affected by magnetic fields, solar flares, and other environmental factors, potentially causing interference or inaccuracies.
Vulnerability: GPS systems are vulnerable to jamming and spoofing, which can intentionally disrupt or manipulate the signals.
Cost: High-quality GPS units with advanced features can be expensive, which may be a barrier for some SAR teams.
What lines on a map detail the change in elevation?
The lines on a map that detail the change in elevation are called contour lines. These lines connect points of equal elevation, allowing you to visualize the shape and steepness of the terrain.
Here’s how to interpret contour lines:
Closely spaced lines: Indicate a steep slope.
Widely spaced lines: Indicate a gentle slope.
Concentric circles: Represent hills or mountains.
V-shapes: Often indicate valleys or canyons, with the “V” pointing uphill.
What is the coordinate system most commonly used by aircraft and maritime vessels?
The coordinate system most commonly used by aircraft and maritime vessels is the Geographic Coordinate System (GCS), which uses latitude and longitude to define locations on the Earth’s surface.
Latitude: Measures the angle north or south of the equator, ranging from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 degrees at the poles.
Longitude: Measures the angle east or west of the prime meridian (which passes through Greenwich, England), ranging from 0 degrees at the prime meridian to 180 degrees east or west.
In wilderness navigation, the compass needle always points to:
In wilderness navigation, a compass needle always points to magnetic north.
If you travel on a course of 215 degrees, the bearing you should take to return to the
starting point should be:
To return to your starting point after traveling on a course of 215 degrees, you should take a reciprocal bearing. A reciprocal bearing is calculated by:
If the original bearing is less than 180 degrees: Add 180 degrees.
If the original bearing is greater than 180 degrees: Subtract 180 degrees.
In this case, 215 degrees is greater than 180 degrees, so we subtract 180 degrees:
215 degrees - 180 degrees = 35 degrees
List at least 5 advantages of using UTM over Latitude – Longitude are:
Advantages of using UTM over Latitude-Longitude:
Easier distance and area calculations: UTM grid lines are parallel and represent constant distances, making it easier to calculate distances and areas using simple arithmetic. In contrast, latitude-longitude lines converge at the poles, requiring more complex calculations for accurate distance and area measurements.
Units in meters: UTM coordinates are expressed in meters, a standard unit of measurement for distance. This makes it easier to work with distances and integrate with other metric-based systems. Latitude-longitude coordinates are expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds, requiring conversion for distance calculations.
Grid system: UTM divides the world into a grid system, making it easier to visualize and locate points. Each grid zone has a unique identifier, simplifying map references. Latitude-longitude coordinates are angular measurements, making it less intuitive to visualize locations.
Easier to plot on a map: UTM coordinates can be easily plotted on a gridded map using the easting and northing values. Latitude-longitude coordinates require more careful plotting due to the converging lines.
Avoids negative values: UTM uses positive values for easting and northing within each zone, eliminating the need to deal with negative values associated with latitude-longitude coordinates (e.g., west longitude and south latitude).
Overall, UTM offers several practical advantages over latitude-longitude, particularly for field use, mapping, and navigation. It provides a simpler, more intuitive system for measuring and communicating location information.
What should a searcher do when evidence of a crime or a deceased person is
located?
In Oregon, if a searcher discovers evidence of a crime or a deceased person during a SAR mission, they should take the following steps:
Secure the scene: Immediately stop all search activities and establish a perimeter around the area to prevent contamination or disturbance of the evidence.
Do not touch or disturb anything: Avoid touching or moving any objects or the body. Even seemingly minor actions can compromise a crime scene investigation.
Notify authorities: Immediately contact law enforcement (typically the Sheriff’s office) and inform them of the discovery. Provide as much detail as possible about the location and nature of the evidence or body.
Follow instructions: Follow the instructions given by law enforcement. They may ask you to remain at the scene until they arrive or to provide further information.
Document your observations: If possible, make detailed notes or take photos of the scene before law enforcement arrives. This can be valuable information for the investigation.
Maintain confidentiality: Do not discuss the discovery with anyone other than law enforcement officials. Sharing information could jeopardize the investigation.
How should searches handle communications of death while on an active search?
During an active search and rescue (SAR) mission, communication regarding the discovery of a deceased person should be handled with extreme sensitivity and discretion. The following guidelines should be followed:
Secure and Private Communication: The information should be communicated directly to the Incident Commander (IC) or a designated supervisor using a secure and private channel, away from the family, friends, or media. This ensures that the information is not accidentally overheard or prematurely released.
Clear and Concise Language: Use clear and concise language when communicating the discovery, avoiding unnecessary details or speculation. Stick to the facts, such as the location of the body and any identifying features.
Follow Protocols: Each SAR team may have specific protocols for handling the discovery of a deceased person. Follow these protocols carefully to ensure proper communication and documentation.
Respect for the Deceased: Treat the deceased with respect and dignity. Avoid discussing the discovery in a casual or disrespectful manner.
Notification of Family: The notification of the family should be handled by law enforcement or other trained professionals, not by SAR personnel. SAR members should not discuss the discovery with the family or media.
Confidentiality: Maintain strict confidentiality about the discovery until law enforcement authorizes the release of information. This is important to protect the integrity of the investigation and the privacy of the deceased’s family.
Emotional Support: SAR members involved in the discovery may experience emotional distress. It’s important to debrief and provide emotional support to those affected by the incident.
Which of the following are common techniques used to secure a crime scene?
Common techniques used to secure a crime scene include:
Establishing a perimeter: The first step is to create a physical barrier using crime scene tape, barricades, or other means to restrict access to the scene. This prevents unauthorized individuals from entering and potentially contaminating evidence.
Controlling access: Designate a single entry/exit point to the crime scene and maintain a log of everyone who enters and exits. This helps track who has been at the scene and limit the potential for contamination.
Protecting evidence: Identify and preserve potential evidence by marking it, taking photographs, and collecting it following proper procedures. This ensures that evidence is not lost or altered.
Documenting the scene: Create detailed notes, sketches, and photographs of the scene to document its condition and the location of evidence. This information is crucial for the investigation and any subsequent legal proceedings.
Interviewing witnesses: If there are any witnesses, separate them and interview them as soon as possible to gather their accounts of what they saw or heard.
Collecting physical evidence: This includes trace evidence (hair, fibers, etc.), fingerprints, bloodstains, weapons, or any other objects that may be relevant to the crime.
Maintaining the chain of custody: Establish a clear chain of custody for all evidence collected, documenting who handled it and when. This ensures the integrity of the evidence and its admissibility in court.
Releasing the scene: Once all evidence has been collected and documented, the scene can be released to the appropriate authorities or the property owner.
Who is in control of a crime scene?
In Oregon, the law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the area where the crime occurred is in control of the crime scene. This is typically the local police department or the county sheriff’s office.
When may a searcher pick up or disturb a clue, even if it is possibly evidence?
A searcher should generally avoid picking up or disturbing any clue that could be potential evidence in a search and rescue (SAR) operation. This is important to preserve the integrity of the scene for potential law enforcement investigation.
However, there are a few exceptions where a searcher might need to handle a clue:
Immediate Safety Concern: If the clue poses an immediate threat to the safety of the searcher or others, it may be necessary to move or remove it. For example, if a searcher finds a weapon or hazardous material, they should take appropriate action to secure it and protect themselves and others.
Preservation of Evidence: In some cases, a clue might be in danger of being destroyed or lost due to weather conditions or other environmental factors. If possible, the searcher should document the clue’s location and condition before carefully collecting and preserving it for law enforcement.
Aiding the Search: If a clue provides critical information that could directly assist in locating the missing person, the searcher may need to handle it to analyze or interpret its meaning. For example, a note or personal item could provide valuable clues about the subject’s direction of travel or intentions.
In any of these situations, the searcher should:
Document the action: Take detailed notes or photographs of the clue before and after handling it, including its original location and condition.
Minimize disturbance: Handle the clue as little as possible and avoid altering its state or position more than necessary.
Notify authorities: Inform the Incident Commander or law enforcement as soon as possible about the discovery and any actions taken regarding the clue.
It’s important to remember that these exceptions are limited and should be exercised with caution. In most cases, the best course of action is to leave potential evidence undisturbed and notify the appropriate authorities.
What type of search and process would be used to find and recover evidence in a crime scene?
The type of search and process used to find and recover evidence in a crime scene depends on several factors, including the size and nature of the scene, the type of crime committed, and the available resources. However, some common techniques are used in most crime scene investigations:
Search Patterns:
Spiral Search: The searcher begins at the outer perimeter of the scene and moves inward in a spiral pattern. This is useful for smaller scenes with no physical barriers.
Grid Search: The scene is divided into a grid, and each section is searched systematically. This is ideal for larger outdoor scenes.
Line/Strip Search: Searchers walk in parallel lines across the scene. This is effective for covering large areas quickly.
Zone/Quadrant Search: The scene is divided into zones, and each zone is searched individually. This is useful for complex scenes with multiple rooms or areas.
The primary purpose of a searcher briefing is to:
The primary purpose of a searcher briefing is to:
Provide Essential Information: Convey crucial details about the missing person, the search area, and the overall objectives of the search mission. This includes information on the subject’s profile, last known location, clothing, equipment, and any relevant medical or behavioral concerns.
Establish Clear Objectives: Define the specific goals of the search, such as locating the missing person, gathering clues, or securing a potential crime scene. This helps focus the efforts of the search team and ensures everyone is working towards the same objectives.
Assign Tasks and Responsibilities: Clearly assign roles and responsibilities to each member of the search team, ensuring that everyone knows their specific tasks and areas of responsibility. This promotes coordination and efficiency during the search.
Review Safety Protocols: Emphasize safety procedures and protocols to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of all searchers. This includes reviewing communication procedures, emergency response plans, and any hazards specific to the search area.
Foster Teamwork and Communication: Encourage communication and collaboration among team members, fostering a sense of teamwork and shared purpose. This helps create a supportive and effective search environment.
The primary purpose of a search team debriefing is to:
The primary purpose of a search team debriefing is to:
Gather and share information: Collect feedback from all team members about their observations, experiences, and any clues or evidence found during the search.
Evaluate the search effort: Analyze the effectiveness of the search strategies and tactics used, identifying what worked well and what could be improved.
Identify lessons learned: Discuss any challenges or problems encountered during the search and brainstorm potential solutions for future missions.
Document findings: Create a comprehensive record of the search, including the methods used, results obtained, and lessons learned. This information can be invaluable for planning future searches and improving overall SAR operations.
Provide closure and support: Allow team members to share their thoughts and feelings about the search, providing emotional support and a sense of closure. This can be particularly important for difficult or emotionally challenging searches.
What is the purpose of personnel check in and checkout procedures on a search
mission?
The purpose of personnel check-in and checkout procedures on a search mission is to ensure the safety and accountability of all search team members. These procedures help to:
Track Personnel: Maintain an accurate record of who is involved in the search, their assignments, and their location within the search area. This is crucial for coordinating resources, tracking progress, and ensuring everyone’s safety.
Prevent Lost or Missing Searchers: By checking in and out, team members confirm their status and location, reducing the risk of someone becoming lost or unaccounted for during the search.
Monitor Fatigue and Well-being: Check-ins provide an opportunity to assess the physical and mental state of searchers, allowing for early identification of fatigue, injuries, or other issues that could compromise safety or performance.
Accountability: The check-in/checkout process ensures that everyone is aware of their responsibilities and that there is a clear chain of command. This helps to maintain order and discipline during the search.
Incident Management: The information gathered during check-ins can be used to update incident commanders and other decision-makers about the progress of the search, the status of personnel, and any changes in the situation.
Legal and Liability Considerations: Maintaining accurate records of personnel involvement can be important for legal and liability purposes, should any issues arise during or after the search.
The role of a Public Information Officer (PIO) on a mission is:
The role of a Public Information Officer (PIO) on a search and rescue mission is multifaceted and crucial for ensuring effective communication with both internal and external stakeholders.
Internal Communication:
Information Coordination: The PIO acts as a central hub for information, gathering updates from search teams, incident command, and other relevant sources. They then organize and disseminate this information to other team members, ensuring everyone is informed and working with the most up-to-date details.
Communication Facilitation: The PIO facilitates communication between different teams and individuals involved in the search, ensuring smooth coordination and avoiding misunderstandings. They may also be responsible for managing internal communication channels, such as radios or online platforms.
External Communication:
Media Relations: The PIO serves as the primary point of contact for the media, providing official statements, updates, and background information on the search. They manage media inquiries, arrange interviews, and ensure that accurate and timely information is released to the public.
Community Engagement: The PIO may interact with the local community, providing updates, addressing concerns, and enlisting their help in the search effort. This can involve organizing community meetings, distributing flyers, or utilizing social media platforms to reach a wider audience.
Rumor Control: The PIO plays a crucial role in managing rumors and misinformation that may arise during a search. They actively monitor social media and other channels for false information and work to correct it promptly, ensuring that the public receives accurate and reliable updates.
Accurate documentation of the efforts of search teams is important because:
Accurate documentation of the efforts of search teams is important for several reasons:
Safety and Accountability: Records of where teams have searched and when help ensure that areas are not unnecessarily duplicated, preventing wasted resources and potential risks to searchers. It also helps track the location and status of each team member, ensuring their safety.
Operational Efficiency: Detailed logs of search activities, including routes, findings, and challenges encountered, allow for better analysis and evaluation of the search effort. This information can be used to improve strategies and tactics for future missions.
Legal and Liability Considerations: In case of accidents, injuries, or other incidents, accurate documentation provides a record of events and actions taken. This can be crucial for legal purposes and to protect the organization and its members from liability.
Statistical Analysis and Resource Allocation: Analyzing data collected from multiple searches can help identify trends, patterns, and areas where resources may be needed most. This information can be used to allocate resources more effectively and improve overall SAR capabilities.
Debriefing and Training: Detailed documentation provides valuable material for debriefing sessions, allowing teams to review their performance, learn from their experiences, and identify areas for improvement. It can also be used for training new members and developing more effective search techniques.
Historical Record: Documentation creates a historical record of SAR activities, which can be useful for research, planning, and understanding the evolution of search and rescue practices.
Hasty teams are used primarily for:
In the context of Search and Rescue (SAR), hasty teams are deployed primarily for:
Rapid initial response: Hasty teams are the first responders, quickly deployed to the search area to locate clues, signs, or the subject themselves. Their goal is to cover a large area quickly and efficiently, while remaining flexible and adaptable to changing information.
High-probability areas: Hasty teams focus on areas where the subject is most likely to be found, based on initial information and clues. This may include last known locations, trails, campsites, or other areas of interest.
Immediate needs: Hasty teams may also be tasked with providing immediate assistance to the subject if found, such as first aid or evacuation, or securing a potential crime scene.
Type I searching is best described as:
Type I searching, also known as a hasty search, is best described as a rapid initial response to a search and rescue incident. It involves a small team of highly mobile searchers who quickly cover high-probability areas to locate clues, signs, or the subject themselves.
Type II searching is best described as:
Type II searching, also known as an area search, is best described as a more thorough and systematic search method compared to Type I. It involves larger teams of searchers who methodically cover a designated search area, often using specific search patterns and techniques.
Type III searching is best described as:
Type III searching, also known as a grid search, is a systematic and thorough search method used in SAR operations when the initial hasty search (Type I) or area search (Type II) have been unsuccessful or when the search area is large and requires a methodical approach.
Attraction, as a search strategy, could include:
In the context of Search and Rescue (SAR), attraction as a search strategy could include:
Visual Signals: Using bright lights, flares, or mirrors to attract the attention of the lost subject. This is particularly effective during nighttime searches or in areas with limited visibility.
Audible Signals: Utilizing whistles, air horns, sirens, or even playing familiar sounds or music that might resonate with the missing person. This is especially useful when the subject might be within hearing distance but not in sight.
Scent Stations: Deploying scent articles familiar to the subject, such as clothing or bedding, along potential travel routes or in areas where they might seek shelter. This can lure lost individuals who might be following their own scent trail or seeking familiar smells.
Food and Water Sources: Placing food and water in visible and accessible locations can attract individuals who are hungry or thirsty. This is particularly effective for children or individuals with cognitive impairments.
Familiar Objects: Placing familiar objects like toys, flags, or other items with personal significance in visible locations can draw the attention of the lost subject and encourage them to approach.
Animal Attraction: In some cases, using trained search dogs or even horses can help attract the missing person through their scent or presence. This can be particularly effective for children or individuals who might be drawn to animals.
Why is confinement and containment important in a search?
Confinement and containment are important in a search for several reasons:
Preventing the subject from moving further away: By establishing containment, you limit the area where the subject can move, making the search more focused and efficient. This is especially important when dealing with subjects who are lost, disoriented, or attempting to evade searchers.
Focusing search efforts: Containment allows search teams to concentrate their efforts within a defined perimeter, increasing the probability of finding the subject quickly.
Protecting the subject: Containment can help prevent the subject from entering dangerous areas, such as cliffs, rivers, or roads. It can also protect them from potential threats, such as wild animals or adverse weather conditions.
Preserving evidence: In cases where the search is related to a crime or missing person, containment helps preserve the scene and prevent the loss or contamination of evidence.
Safety of searchers: By defining a search perimeter, containment can also help ensure the safety of searchers by preventing them from wandering too far or entering hazardous areas.
Confinement typically refers to establishing a perimeter around a specific area where the subject is believed to be located, based on clues or last known location. This can be done using physical barriers like flagging tape, personnel stationed at key points, or natural features like rivers or cliffs.
Containment refers to the broader strategy of preventing the subject from leaving a larger area, often using a combination of physical barriers, patrols, and checkpoints.
Both confinement and containment are essential tactics in SAR operations, helping to increase the chances of a successful search while ensuring the safety of both the subject and the searchers.
The most important elements of a Sound Sweep for a missing person are:
The most important elements of a Sound Sweep for a missing person are:
Timing: Sound sweeps are most effective when conducted early in the search, ideally within the first 24-48 hours, while the missing person is still likely to be responsive and capable of hearing and responding to auditory signals.
Coordination: All searchers must be synchronized in their actions. This typically involves a base station operator using a radio to signal the start and end of each sound cycle (a period of sound production followed by a period of listening).
Sound Production: Searchers use whistles, air horns, or other loud signaling devices to produce a distinct sound pattern. This pattern should be consistent and easily distinguishable from natural sounds.
Listening: After each sound cycle, searchers remain silent and listen attentively for any response from the missing person, such as calls for help, whistles, or other sounds.
Searcher Spacing: Searchers are spaced at wider intervals than in visual searches, typically 3-4 times the distance used in a normal grid search. This allows for faster coverage of a larger area.
Terrain and Conditions: The effectiveness of sound sweeps can be affected by terrain, vegetation, and weather conditions. Wind, rain, and dense foliage can all hinder sound transmission and reception.
Subject’s Ability to Respond: Sound sweeps rely on the missing person’s ability to hear and respond to the signals. Factors like age, health condition, and level of consciousness can influence their responsiveness.
Critical Separation for a visual search:
Critical separation in a visual search refers to the maximum distance between two adjacent searchers that allows for a high probability of detecting the subject. This distance can vary depending on several factors:
Terrain: In open terrain with good visibility, the critical separation can be larger, while in dense vegetation or rough terrain, it needs to be smaller.
Lighting conditions: In low light or darkness, the critical separation needs to be reduced significantly.
Subject’s characteristics: The size, color, and movement of the subject can affect how easily they are seen, thus influencing the critical separation.
Searcher’s experience and skill: Experienced searchers may be able to effectively scan a wider area than novice searchers.
There is no single, universally applicable critical separation distance. It is a dynamic value that must be determined based on the specific conditions of each search. However, some general guidelines suggest that in ideal conditions (open terrain, good visibility), a critical separation of 50-100 feet might be appropriate. In more challenging conditions, this distance may need to be reduced to 25-50 feet or even less.
When searching an area the “search cube” is used. Define this term.
In Search and Rescue (SAR) operations, the “search cube” is a conceptual model used to visualize the three-dimensional space that needs to be searched. It’s not a physical object, but rather a way of thinking about the search area and ensuring that all potential locations are thoroughly covered.
The search cube has three dimensions:
Length and Width: These represent the horizontal area of the search, typically defined by a map or GPS coordinates.
Height: This represents the vertical dimension, which includes not only the ground level but also potential locations above and below the ground, such as tree canopies, caves, or bodies of water.
By considering all three dimensions, search teams can avoid focusing solely on the ground level and ensure that they are also searching potential hiding places or areas where the subject may have climbed or fallen.
Detection is affected by:
Detection in search and rescue (SAR) operations is affected by a variety of factors, including:
Subject Factors:
Size and Shape: Smaller or camouflaged subjects are harder to detect than larger or brightly colored ones.
Movement: Movement can make a subject easier to spot, but it also depends on the speed, direction, and contrast with the background.
Signaling: A subject who is actively signaling (e.g., with a whistle, mirror, or fire) is easier to detect.
Physical and Mental Condition: An injured or exhausted subject may be less likely to signal or move, making them harder to find.
Environmental Factors:
Terrain: Dense vegetation, steep slopes, or rocky terrain can obscure a subject and make them harder to see.
Lighting Conditions: Low light, shadows, or glare can all hinder visibility.
Weather: Fog, rain, snow, or dust can reduce visibility and make detection more difficult.
Background Noise: Ambient noise from wind, water, or animals can mask auditory signals from the subject.
Searcher Factors:
Experience and Training: Experienced searchers are more likely to recognize subtle clues and signs.
Physical Condition: Fatigue and dehydration can impair a searcher’s focus and visual acuity.
Attitude and Motivation: A positive attitude and strong motivation can help searchers remain vigilant and persistent.
Search Methods: The type of search pattern and techniques used can affect the probability of detection.
In search terms what does P.O.D. stand for?
In search and rescue terms, POD stands for Probability of Detection. It refers to the likelihood of finding a missing person or object within a given search area, given the search resources, techniques, and environmental conditions.
POD is a crucial concept in SAR planning, as it helps teams prioritize areas to search and determine the most effective strategies. Several factors influence POD, including:
Subject’s profile: Age, health, experience, and behavior can affect their likelihood of being found.
Terrain and environment: Dense vegetation, rough terrain, or extreme weather can make detection more difficult.
Search resources: The number of searchers, their skills, and the available equipment (e.g., dogs, helicopters, drones) can significantly impact POD.
Search tactics: The specific search patterns and techniques used can affect the thoroughness of the search and the likelihood of detection.
In search terms what does L.K.P. stand for?
In search and rescue terms, LKP stands for Last Known Point. It refers to the last confirmed location of a missing person or object. This information is crucial for SAR teams as it provides a starting point for the search and helps determine the most likely areas where the subject may be found.
The LKP can be determined through various means, such as:
Witness statements: Interviews with people who last saw the subject can provide valuable information about their location and direction of travel.
Electronic data: Cell phone records, GPS tracks, or social media posts can help pinpoint the subject’s last known location.
Physical clues: Footprints, tire tracks, or discarded items can provide clues about the subject’s movements and potential whereabouts.
Once the LKP is established, SAR teams can use this information in conjunction with other factors like terrain, weather, and the subject’s profile to develop effective search strategies and prioritize areas to search.
What does PLS stand for?
Pooint Last Seen
How is LKP different from PLS?
In search and rescue terminology, LKP (Last Known Point) and PLS (Point Last Seen) are related but distinct terms:
LKP (Last Known Point):
Refers to the last confirmed location of a missing person or object.
This confirmation can be based on various sources of evidence, such as witness statements, electronic data (GPS tracks, cell phone pings), or physical clues (footprints, tire tracks).
The LKP provides a starting point for search efforts and helps determine the most likely areas where the subject might be found.
PLS (Point Last Seen):
Refers to the location where the missing person or object was last observed by someone.
This observation might not be completely reliable or accurate, as it can be based on memory, perception, or incomplete information.
PLS can be a useful starting point for a search, but it should be treated with caution and verified with other evidence if possible.
In some cases, the LKP and PLS might be the same location, but in others, they could be different. For example, a hiker might be last seen (PLS) at a trailhead, but their last known point (LKP) could be a specific GPS coordinate recorded a few miles into the hike.
Understanding the difference between LKP and PLS is important for SAR teams, as it helps them prioritize search areas and interpret clues accurately.
POA, or Probability Of Area, is defined as:
POA, or Probability of Area, is defined as the estimated likelihood that a missing person or object is located within a specific search area. It is a key factor in search and rescue (SAR) planning, as it helps teams prioritize areas to search and allocate resources effectively.
POA is typically expressed as a percentage and is calculated by considering various factors, including:
Terrain: The type of terrain (e.g., dense forest, open field, steep slopes) can affect the subject’s ability to move and hide, influencing the probability of their presence in different areas.
Clues and Evidence: Footprints, personal belongings, or other signs can indicate the subject’s likely path and increase the POA of specific areas.
Subject’s Profile: The subject’s age, physical condition, experience, and behavior can all affect their movement patterns and likelihood of being in certain areas.
Last Known Point (LKP): The LKP is the last confirmed location of the subject, and the POA is generally highest in areas closest to the LKP.
Time Elapsed: As time passes, the POA of the initial search area may decrease, and the search may need to expand to other areas.
By assigning POA values to different areas, SAR teams can prioritize their search efforts, focusing on areas with the highest probability of containing the subject. This helps maximize the chances of a successful rescue while minimizing the time and resources spent on low-probability areas.
IPP, or Initial Planning Point, is best defined as;
IPP, or Initial Planning Point, is best defined as the location used as the starting point for planning a search and rescue operation. It may be the same as the subject’s last known point (LKP) or point last seen (PLS), or it can be a calculated point based on those locations or other available information.
The IPP is a critical element in search planning because it serves as the reference point for determining:
Search area: The area surrounding the IPP is the initial focus of the search effort.
Search tactics: The type of search strategy and tactics used may depend on the terrain and conditions around the IPP.
Resource allocation: Resources are often deployed in relation to the IPP, with higher priority given to areas closer to it.
Probability of Area (POA): The likelihood of finding the subject decreases as the distance from the IPP increases.
It’s important to note that while the LKP or PLS may change during a search as new information becomes available, the IPP remains fixed as the initial planning point.
The IPP can be a single point or an area, depending on the certainty of the subject’s location. In cases where the LKP or PLS is uncertain, the IPP may be a larger area based on the most probable location of the subject.
Landing zone requirements for helicopters should take into consideration:
Landing zone (LZ) requirements for helicopters in search and rescue operations should take into consideration:
Size and Type of Helicopter: Different helicopters have varying dimensions and weight capacities, which dictate the minimum size of the LZ. Ensure the LZ is large enough to accommodate the rotor diameter and tail swing of the expected helicopter.
Terrain and Slope: The LZ should be as level and free of obstacles as possible. Avoid areas with steep slopes, loose debris, tall grass, or any objects that could become airborne in the rotor wash.
Obstacles and Hazards: Identify and remove or mark any obstacles in and around the LZ, such as trees, power lines, rocks, or vehicles. Consider the approach and departure paths as well, ensuring there are no obstructions that could endanger the helicopter.
Surface Conditions: The LZ should be firm and stable enough to support the weight of the helicopter. Avoid soft or uneven ground, as well as dusty or sandy areas that could create visibility issues during landing and takeoff.
Wind Conditions: Helicopters generally prefer to land and take off into the wind. Assess the wind direction and speed and choose an LZ that allows for a safe approach and departure.
Accessibility: The LZ should be easily accessible to ground crews and the subject(s) being rescued. Consider the proximity to the incident site, available transportation routes, and the need for additional clearing or preparation of the site.
Marking and Communication: Clearly mark the LZ using cones, flags, or other visible markers. Communicate the LZ location, dimensions, and any hazards to the helicopter crew prior to their arrival.
Safety Perimeter: Establish a safety perimeter around the LZ to keep unauthorized personnel and vehicles away from the area during landing and takeoff.
By carefully considering these factors, SAR teams can select and prepare a safe and suitable landing zone for helicopter operations, ensuring the efficient and successful execution of the mission.
Define the basic requirements for a landing zone (LZ) or heliport.
A landing zone (LZ) or heliport is a designated area for helicopter landings and takeoffs. The basic requirements for an LZ or heliport are designed to ensure the safety of both the helicopter and its occupants, as well as any personnel on the ground. These requirements include:
Size:
Minimum dimensions: The LZ should be large enough to accommodate the rotor diameter and tail swing of the largest helicopter expected to use it. This typically requires a minimum diameter of 1.5 times the rotor diameter.
Clear area: The LZ should be clear of obstacles like trees, power lines, and buildings within a specified radius, both horizontally and vertically.
Approach and departure paths: The LZ should have clear approach and departure paths, free of obstacles and with sufficient space for the helicopter to maneuver.
Surface:
Level and firm: The LZ should be as level as possible and have a firm, stable surface that can support the weight of the helicopter and its occupants.
Clear of debris: The surface should be clear of loose debris, rocks, or any objects that could become airborne in the rotor wash and damage the helicopter or injure personnel.
Marking: If the LZ is not a permanent heliport, it should be clearly marked with cones, lights, or other visual aids to guide the pilot.
Safety:
Perimeter: A safety perimeter should be established around the LZ to keep unauthorized personnel and vehicles away during landing and takeoff.
Fire suppression: A fire extinguisher or other fire suppression equipment should be readily available in case of an emergency.
Communication: A means of communication should be established between the LZ and the helicopter crew to coordinate the landing and takeoff.
Additional considerations:
Wind direction and speed: The LZ should be chosen with consideration for wind conditions, as helicopters generally prefer to land and take off into the wind.
Noise considerations: The LZ should be located in a way that minimizes noise disturbance to nearby residents or businesses.
Night operations: If the LZ will be used at night, it should be adequately lit to ensure safe operations.
These are just the basic requirements for an LZ or heliport. Depending on the specific operation and the type of helicopter being used, additional requirements or considerations may apply.
To adequately protect yourself, searchers involved in helicopter operations should
ensure that they have the following safety equipment for themselves and any subjects:
To adequately protect yourself, searchers involved in helicopter operations should
ensure that they have the following safety equipment for themselves and any subjects:
How far away can a Helicopter pilot see you while they are landing?
The distance a helicopter pilot can see you while landing depends on several factors:
Altitude: The higher the helicopter, the farther the pilot can see. During the initial approach, the helicopter might be several hundred feet in the air, offering a wide field of view. As they descend for landing, their visibility of the ground decreases.
Visibility: Clear weather conditions provide the best visibility. Haze, fog, rain, or snow can significantly reduce the pilot’s ability to see objects on the ground.
Lighting: Daylight offers the best visibility, while nighttime or low-light conditions can make it harder for the pilot to see ground personnel.
Terrain: Obstacles like trees, buildings, or hills can obstruct the pilot’s view, limiting how far they can see.
Size and Contrast: A person wearing bright or contrasting colors against the background will be easier to spot than someone wearing camouflage or blending in with the surroundings.
Movement: Movement can also make a person more noticeable to the pilot.
In general, helicopter pilots are trained to scan the landing zone and surrounding areas carefully during their approach. They will typically be able to see a person standing on the ground from a considerable distance, especially if that person is wearing high-visibility clothing and is in an open area. However, as they get closer to the ground, their focus narrows to the immediate landing area, and their peripheral vision becomes more limited.
It is only safe to approach the helicopter when:
The pilot or a designated crew member gives you a clear signal to do so. This could be a verbal signal over the radio, a visual signal like a thumbs-up, or a wave.
The helicopter is completely stopped and the rotors have come to a standstill. Never approach a helicopter while the rotors are still turning, as they pose a serious hazard.
Clues / evidence located in the field should be immediately reported to base and then:
Clues or evidence located in the field should be immediately reported to base, and then:
Marked: Clearly mark the location of the clue or evidence without disturbing it. This can be done using flagging tape, GPS coordinates, or other markers.
Photographed/Documented: Take photos or detailed notes of the clue or evidence in its original state and location. This documentation is crucial for preserving the integrity of the evidence and for later analysis.
Protected: If possible, take steps to protect the clue or evidence from the elements or accidental disturbance until it can be properly collected by authorized personnel. This might involve covering it with a tarp or creating a barrier around it.
Left Undisturbed: Avoid touching, moving, or altering the clue or evidence in any way. This could compromise its value for investigation or legal purposes.
Reported Again: After taking the above steps, report back to base with the updated information on the location, marking, and documentation of the clue or evidence.
In tracking, “sign” can be best described as:
In tracking, “sign” can be best described as any indication or evidence left behind by the passage of a person or animal. This includes:
Tracks: Footprints, hoof prints, or paw prints left in the ground.
Scat: Animal droppings or feces.
Disturbed vegetation: Broken branches, flattened grass, or other signs of movement through vegetation.
Scratches or marks: Marks left on trees, rocks, or other surfaces by claws, antlers, or other body parts.
Blood or other bodily fluids: These can indicate injury or the presence of an animal.
Disturbed ground: Areas where the ground has been disturbed by digging, scratching, or other activities.
Foreign objects: Items like clothing, trash, or food scraps that have been dropped or left behind.
Sign found in the field can be protected from damage or preserved by;
Sign found in the field can be protected from damage or preserved by:
Marking: Clearly mark the sign’s location using flagging tape, GPS coordinates, or other markers to prevent accidental disturbance.
Flagging: Use flagging tape to create a barrier around the sign, keeping searchers and others from stepping on or near it.
Covering: If the sign is delicate or vulnerable to weather, cover it with a tarp, leaves, or other natural materials to protect it from rain, sun, or wind.
Photography: Take detailed photographs of the sign from multiple angles and distances. This provides a visual record of the sign in its original state and can be used for analysis or documentation.
Casting: If the sign is a footprint or other impression, consider making a cast using plaster or other casting materials. This creates a permanent replica of the sign for further analysis.
Collecting: In some cases, it may be necessary to collect the sign itself for further analysis or preservation. This should only be done by trained personnel following proper procedures to avoid contamination or damage.
Documentation: Record the location, description, and any other relevant details about the sign in a field notebook or electronic device. This information can be used for tracking, analysis, and reporting.
Avoiding Disturbance: The most important way to preserve sign is to avoid disturbing it unnecessarily. Searchers should be trained to recognize and respect sign, stepping carefully around it and avoiding touching or altering it in any way.
The elements of a track or print are:
The elements of a track or print are:
Size: The overall dimensions of the track, including length, width, and depth. This can help determine the size and species of the animal or the shoe size of a person.
Shape: The general outline or form of the track, which can vary depending on the type of foot, gait, or footwear.
Pattern: The arrangement of the tracks in relation to each other. This can indicate the direction of travel, speed, and gait of the animal or person.
Individual Characteristics: Unique features within the track, such as toe pads, claws, heel prints, or wear patterns on shoes. These can help distinguish one individual from another.
Substrate: The surface on which the track was made. The type of substrate (e.g., mud, sand, snow) can affect the clarity and preservation of the track.
Additional Signs: Other signs associated with the track, such as disturbed vegetation, scat, or drag marks, can provide additional information about the animal or person’s behavior and movement.
The emphasis of looking for clues is:
The emphasis of looking for clues in a search and rescue operation is to:
Determine the Subject’s Direction of Travel: Clues can provide valuable information about where the missing person might be heading, helping searchers prioritize search areas and develop effective strategies.
Understand the Subject’s Actions and Intentions: Clues can offer insights into the subject’s behavior, mental state, and decision-making process. This can help searchers anticipate their actions and predict their potential whereabouts.
Narrow the Search Area: By following clues, searchers can narrow down the search area, focusing their efforts on areas where the subject is more likely to be found.
Gather Information for Investigation: In cases where the disappearance may be related to a crime or foul play, clues can provide crucial evidence for law enforcement investigation.
Increase the Chances of a Successful Rescue: By focusing on clues and understanding the subject’s actions, searchers can significantly increase the probability of finding the missing person quickly and safely.
If a searcher finds something that could be a relevant item of interest, the searcher
should stop, and notify:
If a searcher finds something that could be a relevant item of interest, the searcher should stop and immediately notify their team leader or the Incident Commander (IC).
What are common signs of hypothermia?
Common signs of hypothermia include:
Mild Hypothermia:
Shivering: The body’s natural response to cold is to shiver, attempting to generate heat.
Clumsiness or lack of coordination: As the body temperature drops, muscle function can be impaired.
Slurred speech or mumbling: Cognitive functions can be affected, leading to slurred speech or difficulty speaking clearly.
Confusion or memory loss: The brain’s function is impaired by cold, resulting in confusion and difficulty remembering things.
Moderate to Severe Hypothermia:
Slow, shallow breathing: The body’s metabolic rate slows down, resulting in slower breathing.
Weak pulse: The heart rate decreases as the body tries to conserve energy.
Drowsiness or very low energy: Fatigue and a lack of energy are common as the body shuts down.
Loss of consciousness: In severe cases, individuals may lose consciousness.
What is the proper field treatment of mild hypothermia?
The proper field treatment of mild hypothermia includes the following steps:
Remove from Cold Exposure:
Get the person out of the wind and cold environment as quickly as possible.
Find or create a shelter if available.
Remove Wet Clothing:
Carefully remove any wet clothing and replace it with dry, warm layers.
Be gentle to avoid excessive movement that could worsen the condition.
Insulate:
Wrap the person in warm blankets or sleeping bags.
Cover their head, leaving only the face exposed.
If possible, insulate them from the cold ground with a pad or extra layers.
Provide Warm Fluids:
If the person is conscious and able to swallow, offer warm, non-alcoholic, and non-caffeinated beverages.
Warm broth or soup can be helpful.
Encourage Activity:
If the person is capable, light exercise like arm swings or walking can help generate body heat.
Avoid strenuous activity that could lead to further heat loss.
Monitor Closely:
Continuously monitor the person’s condition, including their breathing, pulse, and level of consciousness.
Be prepared to administer CPR if necessary.
Seek Medical Attention:
Even if the person seems to be improving, it’s important to seek professional medical evaluation as soon as possible.
What are methods to prevent hyperthermia?
Hyperthermia, or heat illness, can be a serious concern, especially during search and rescue missions in warm weather. Here are some methods to prevent it:
Hydration:
Drink plenty of fluids: The most crucial step is to drink water regularly, even if you don’t feel thirsty. Dehydration is a major risk factor for hyperthermia.
Electrolyte replacement: Consider sports drinks or electrolyte tablets to replenish lost salts and minerals through sweat.
Monitor urine color: Clear or light yellow urine indicates adequate hydration, while dark yellow or amber urine suggests dehydration.
Clothing and Gear:
Lightweight and breathable clothing: Choose loose-fitting, light-colored clothing that allows air circulation and helps wick away sweat.
Wide-brimmed hat and sunglasses: Protect yourself from the sun’s rays.
Cooling gear: Consider using cooling vests, neck wraps, or bandanas soaked in water to help regulate body temperature.
Activity Modification:
Avoid strenuous activity during the hottest parts of the day: Schedule breaks during peak heat hours.
Rest in the shade: Take frequent breaks in shaded areas to cool down.
Pace yourself: Avoid overexertion and listen to your body’s signals.
Acclimatize: Gradually increase your activity level in hot weather to allow your body to adjust.
Monitoring:
Monitor your body temperature: Use a thermometer to check your temperature regularly, especially if you feel unwell.
Watch for signs of heat illness: Be aware of symptoms like headache, dizziness, nausea, confusion, or excessive sweating. If you experience any of these, stop activity, cool down, and seek medical attention if necessary.
Buddy system: Check on your teammates regularly for signs of heat illness.
What are the methods to prevent frostbite?
Frostbite is a serious condition that can occur when the body is exposed to extreme cold. To prevent frostbite during SAR missions or other outdoor activities in cold weather, follow these essential steps:
Clothing and Gear:
Layers: Dress in layers of warm clothing, including a base layer to wick away moisture, an insulating layer for warmth, and a waterproof outer layer to protect against wind and snow.
Head and Neck Protection: Wear a warm hat that covers your ears and a scarf or neck gaiter to protect your face and neck.
Hand and Foot Protection: Wear warm, waterproof gloves or mittens and insulated boots. Carry extra pairs of socks in case your feet get wet.
Vapor Barrier: Consider using a vapor barrier liner (VBL) in your boots to prevent sweat from freezing and causing frostbite.
Activity and Exposure:
Stay Dry: Wet clothing significantly increases the risk of frostbite. Change out of wet clothing as soon as possible.
Keep Moving: If you must stop for a break, keep moving your fingers and toes to maintain circulation. Avoid sitting or standing still for extended periods.
Limit Exposure: Take regular breaks in a warm shelter or vehicle to warm up.
Monitor for Signs of Frostbite: Be aware of early signs of frostbite, such as numbness, tingling, or pale skin. Take immediate action if you or a teammate experience these symptoms.
Buddy System: Check on your teammates regularly for signs of frostbite and look out for each other.
Nutrition and Hydration:
Stay Hydrated: Drink plenty of fluids, even if you don’t feel thirsty. Dehydration can increase the risk of frostbite.
Eat Regularly: Consume high-energy foods to maintain your body temperature and provide fuel for activity.
To treat frostbite in the field you should:
To treat frostbite in the field, you should:
Move to a warm, dry location: If possible, get out of the cold and wind to prevent further heat loss. Find a sheltered area or create a temporary shelter.
Remove constrictive clothing and jewelry: Tight clothing or jewelry can restrict blood flow and worsen frostbite.
Do NOT rub or massage the affected area: This can damage the tissue further.
For minor frostbite (frostnip):
Gently rewarm the area: Place frostnipped fingers under your armpits or use skin-to-skin contact to warm the affected area. Do not use direct heat sources like hot water or a campfire, as this can cause burns.
For more severe frostbite (numbness, blisters, white or greyish skin):
Seek medical attention immediately: Severe frostbite requires professional medical treatment.
Protect the area: If evacuation is delayed, gently wrap the affected area in dry, sterile bandages. Place gauze between fingers and toes to prevent them from sticking together.
Elevate the affected area: If possible, raise the frostbitten area to reduce swelling.
Do NOT rewarm the area if refreezing is possible: If the area refreezes, it can cause more severe damage.
Symptoms of frostbite include:
ymptoms of frostbite can vary depending on the severity, but generally include:
Early Stage (Frostnip):
Redness or pain in the affected area
A white or grayish-yellow skin area
Skin that feels unusually firm or waxy
Numbness
Moderate to Severe Frostbite:
Blisters (filled with clear fluid or possibly blood-filled in more severe cases)
Complete numbness
Skin may appear blue, gray, purple, or brown
After Rewarming:
The affected area may sting, burn, and swell
A fluid-filled blister may form 12 to 36 hours after rewarming
Which mechanism(s) cause heat loss that can lead to hypothermia?
The human body loses heat through five main mechanisms, all of which can contribute to hypothermia if not properly managed:
Conduction: This is the transfer of heat through direct contact with a colder object. For example, sitting on cold ground or immersing yourself in cold water will cause rapid heat loss through conduction.
Convection: This is the transfer of heat through the movement of air or water. Wind chill is a classic example of convective heat loss, as the wind carries away warm air from the body’s surface.
Radiation: This is the transfer of heat through infrared radiation. The body naturally radiates heat to its surroundings, and this process is accelerated in cold environments.
Evaporation: This is the loss of heat when sweat or moisture on the skin evaporates. Even in cold weather, the body can lose significant heat through evaporation, especially if clothing is wet.
Respiration: The body loses some heat through the process of breathing, as warm air is exhaled and replaced with cooler air from the environment.
In hypothermia, the body loses heat faster than it can produce it, leading to a drop in core body temperature. The combination of these heat loss mechanisms can quickly overwhelm the body’s ability to maintain its normal temperature, especially in cold, wet, or windy conditions.
In what type of weather can dehydration occur?
Dehydration can occur in various weather conditions, not just hot weather. Here are the main types of weather where dehydration is a risk:
Hot and Dry Weather: High temperatures and low humidity increase sweating and fluid loss, leading to dehydration if fluids are not adequately replaced.
Hot and Humid Weather: Humidity hinders the evaporation of sweat, making it harder for the body to cool down. This can lead to increased sweating and greater fluid loss.
Cold Weather: Cold air is often dry, which can lead to increased fluid loss through respiration (breathing). Additionally, people may not feel as thirsty in cold weather, making it easier to become dehydrated.
Windy Weather: Wind can increase the rate of sweat evaporation, leading to greater fluid loss. This effect is even more pronounced in cold and windy conditions.
High Altitude: At higher altitudes, the air is thinner and drier, leading to increased fluid loss through respiration and urination.
The most common method of controlling bleeding in the field is:
The most common method of controlling bleeding in the field is applying direct pressure to the wound.
What are methods of immobilization (splinting) a limb?
Immobilizing a limb, also known as splinting, is a crucial first-aid technique used to stabilize a suspected fracture, dislocation, or severe sprain. It helps to prevent further injury, reduce pain, and facilitate transportation of the injured person. Here are some common methods of immobilizing a limb:
Rigid Splints: These are made of firm materials like wood, metal, or plastic and provide strong support to the injured limb. Examples include SAM splints, cardboard splints, or improvised splints made from sticks or boards.
Soft Splints: These are made of softer materials like pillows, blankets, or towels and are used for less severe injuries or to provide temporary support before a rigid splint can be applied.
Anatomical Splints: This involves using the uninjured limb as a splint for the injured one. For example, taping fingers or toes together can help immobilize them.
Sling and Swathe: This is a combination of a triangular bandage (sling) to support the arm and a broad bandage (swathe) to secure the arm to the body. It is often used for shoulder and upper arm injuries.
Air Splints: These are inflatable splints that provide even pressure and support to the injured limb. They are often used for fractures and dislocations in the lower leg or forearm.
Traction Splints: These specialized splints apply gentle traction to the injured limb to help realign fractured bones and reduce pain. They are typically used for femur (thighbone) fractures.
Vacuum Splints: These are filled with small beads that conform to the shape of the injured limb when air is removed, providing a custom fit and excellent support.
Common weather hazards in SAR include:
Common weather hazards in SAR include:
Extreme temperatures:
Heat: Can lead to heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and dehydration.
Cold: Can cause hypothermia and frostbite.
Precipitation:
Rain: Can cause flash floods, hypothermia, and make terrain slippery and dangerous.
Snow: Can lead to avalanches, whiteout conditions, and hypothermia.
Freezing rain: Creates icy surfaces, making travel treacherous.
Wind:
High winds: Can make travel difficult, knock down trees, and create wind chill, increasing the risk of hypothermia.
Sudden gusts: Can make helicopter operations dangerous.
Lightning:
Poses a direct threat to searchers in exposed areas.
Fog:
Reduces visibility, making navigation and spotting the subject difficult.
Thunderstorms:
Bring a combination of heavy rain, lightning, and strong winds, creating multiple hazards.
Altitude-related issues:
Altitude sickness: Can affect searchers at higher elevations, causing headaches, nausea, and difficulty breathing.
Different types of specialized hazards on search missions include:
Different types of specialized hazards on search missions include:
Terrain Hazards:
Steep slopes: Risk of falls and injuries.
Cliffs: Potential for falls and rockfall.
Swift water: Drowning, hypothermia, and difficulty navigating.
Avalanche terrain: Risk of being buried by snow.
Crevasses: Hidden cracks in glaciers or snowfields.
Environmental Hazards:
Poisonous plants: Can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, or even systemic toxicity.
Dangerous animals: Encounters with bears, snakes, or other wild animals.
Insect bites and stings: Can cause allergic reactions or transmit diseases.
Man-made Hazards:
Abandoned mines: Risk of collapse, toxic gases, and other hazards.
Hazardous materials: Chemical spills or other hazardous substances.
Active logging or industrial operations: Risk of encountering heavy machinery or hazardous equipment.
Other Hazards:
Hypothermia: Low body temperature due to cold exposure.
Dehydration: Lack of water can lead to heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
Altitude sickness: Can occur at high elevations, causing headaches, nausea, and difficulty breathing.
What are two types of hazards while performing snow based searches?
Two types of hazards while performing snow-based searches are:
Avalanches: Avalanches are sudden, rapid flows of snow down a slope, posing a significant risk to searchers in mountainous terrain. They can be triggered by natural factors like new snowfall, warming temperatures, or human activity. Avalanches can bury and injure or kill people, and can also create obstacles and hazards in the search area.
Hypothermia and Cold-Related Injuries: Cold temperatures, wind chill, and wet conditions can quickly lead to hypothermia, frostbite, and other cold-related injuries. These conditions can impair judgment, coordination, and physical abilities, making searchers more vulnerable to accidents and further injury.
Additional hazards to consider in snow-based searches:
Reduced visibility: Snowstorms, whiteouts, and blowing snow can significantly reduce visibility, making navigation difficult and increasing the risk of getting lost or separated from the team.
Hidden obstacles: Snow can conceal hazards like rocks, tree wells, or crevasses, making travel more dangerous.
Frostbite: Prolonged exposure to cold can cause frostbite, a serious condition that can damage tissues and lead to amputation.
Dehydration: Cold weather can suppress thirst, making it easy to become dehydrated. Dehydration can impair physical and mental performance and increase the risk of cold-related injuries.
Exhaustion: Traveling through snow can be physically demanding, leading to fatigue and exhaustion, which can further increase the risk of accidents and injuries.
When searching near moving water, an effective personal flotation device needs to:
When searching near moving water, an effective personal flotation device (PFD) needs to:
Provide adequate buoyancy: The PFD should have enough buoyancy to keep the wearer’s head above water, even in rough or turbulent conditions. This is usually measured in Newtons (N) or pounds of buoyancy.
Fit properly: The PFD should fit snugly but comfortably, without restricting movement. It should not be too loose or too tight, as this could affect its performance in the water.
Be Coast Guard approved: Ensure the PFD is approved by the U.S. Coast Guard or a similar regulatory body. This indicates that it meets specific safety standards.
Be appropriate for the activity: Choose a PFD that is designed for the type of water activity you will be engaged in. For example, a Type III or V PFD is recommended for moving water, as they offer more freedom of movement while still providing adequate flotation.
Have a whistle attached: A whistle allows the wearer to signal for help in an emergency.
Be brightly colored: A brightly colored PFD makes the wearer more visible in the water, aiding in rescue efforts.
Have reflective tape: Reflective tape increases visibility in low-light conditions.
Be in good condition: Regularly inspect the PFD for any signs of wear and tear, such as rips, tears, or missing buckles.
Prior to crossing moving what, what should you do with your pack?
Prior to crossing moving water, you should take the following precautions with your pack:
Loosen or unbuckle straps: Unbuckle the waist and chest straps on your backpack. This allows you to quickly remove the pack if you fall into the water, preventing it from weighing you down and hindering your ability to swim or stay afloat.
Secure loose items: Ensure all loose items on the outside of your pack are securely fastened or placed inside. This prevents them from being swept away by the current and potentially causing entanglement or loss of essential gear.
Waterproof essentials: Place any essential items that should not get wet, such as electronics, first aid kit, extra clothing, and sleeping bag, in waterproof bags or dry sacks. This protects them from water damage in case of accidental immersion.
Consider pack buoyancy: If your pack is not waterproof, consider placing a waterproof stuff sack or dry bag filled with air inside to help it float if it falls into the water. This can make it easier to retrieve and prevent the loss of valuable gear.
Assess pack necessity: In extremely dangerous or swift-moving water, consider if carrying the pack is necessary. If not, you can leave it behind with a trusted member of your team or cache it in a safe location.
To ensure a safe drive home, what is the one thing searches should do before demobilizing?
To ensure a safe drive home, searchers should rest and rehydrate before demobilizing. This is crucial because search and rescue missions can be physically and mentally demanding, leading to fatigue and dehydration. Driving while fatigued or dehydrated significantly increases the risk of accidents.
Here are some additional tips for a safe drive home:
Eat a nutritious meal or snack: This will help replenish energy levels and improve alertness.
Avoid caffeine and energy drinks: While they might provide a temporary boost, they can lead to a crash later and worsen fatigue.
Share the driving: If possible, take turns driving with other team members to avoid prolonged periods behind the wheel.
Take breaks: Stop every couple of hours to stretch, walk around, and rest.
Stay hydrated: Continue to drink water even during the drive home.
Be aware of your surroundings: Pay attention to the road and traffic conditions, and avoid distractions like cell phones.
Pull over if you feel drowsy: If you start feeling tired, pull over to a safe location and rest for a while before continuing.
Who can stop a search assignment for safety reasons?
In a search and rescue operation, several individuals have the authority to stop a search assignment for safety reasons:
Incident Commander (IC): The IC is the overall leader of the search operation and has the ultimate authority to suspend or terminate the search if they deem it unsafe for the searchers.
Field Team Leaders: Team leaders responsible for specific search areas or groups of searchers can also call off their portion of the search if they encounter hazardous conditions that threaten the safety of their team members.
Individual Searchers: Any searcher who encounters a dangerous situation that poses a threat to their safety or the safety of others has the right and responsibility to stop their individual search effort and report the hazard to their team leader or the IC.
Safety Officer: Some larger or more complex searches may have a designated Safety Officer who is responsible for monitoring safety conditions and can recommend or implement the suspension of search activities if necessary.
What is the first and foremost highest priority for all Search and Rescue missions responders.
The first and foremost highest priority for all Search and Rescue (SAR) mission responders is the safety of the rescue personnel.
