only deck Flashcards
Term
Definition
Place Theory
posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane
Gate Control Theory of Pain
asserts that non-painful input closes the “gates” to painful input, preventing pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious (aka, non-painful) input is able to suppress pain
Priming
a retrieval cue by recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory
Speech Shadowing
an experimental technique in which subjects are told to repeat a word immediately after hearing it (usually through earphones)
Heuristic
simplified principles used to make decisions; also known as “rules of thumb”. Can often lead us to a correct decision, but not always.
Availability
Heuristic
a shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject. (e.g. after watching the movie Jaws, a person is more likely to fear the probability of a shark attack even though statistically it is much more uncommon… this is because the vivid image of a shark attack is still readily accessible in their mind, and they’re relying on that image as a shortcut to make an inference rather than relying on factual statistics)
Representative
Heuristic
categorizing something on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the catagory; may or may not always be acccurate.
(e.g. when we see a person driving a shiny 2018 Porcshe, we are likely to categorize them as rich because we associate fancy cars with wealth)
Base Rate Fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information as a shortcut to make decisions.
(e.g. a volunteer at a stroke center might state that he thinks that the prevalance rate for stroke among perople 65 years or older is probably 40%, even though actual data indicates it is actually signifantly lower; this error may be due to since he works at a stroke center, he encounters more stroke patients on a daily basis, and his experiences affects his perception of how common stroke is in the general population, resulting in base rate fallacy)
Maslow’s Hierchy of Needs
explains behavior based on satisfying needs. Maslow prioritized these “needs” into five categories (of decreasing importance):
- physiological needs (highest priority)
- safety and security
- love and belonging
- self-esteem
- self-actualization (lowest priority)
Self-Determination Theory
3 universal needs that motivate our actions:
- autonomy - the control over our own actions
- competence - need to excel at tasks we find difficult
- relatedness - desire to feel accepted or desired by other
Incentive Theory
explains that behavior is motivated by the desire either pursue rewards or avoid punishments (e.g. when a dog does a trick in order to receive a treat)
Expectancy-Value Theory
the amount of motivation needed to achieve a goal depends on what you expect the outcome to be and how valuable you view its success.
(e.g. you are more likely to be motivated to something either easy to accomplish, or something that you see as valuable to accomplish)
Opponent-Process Theory
explains motivation of drug use, tolerance to drugs, and dependency on drugs; this theory states explains how our body changes its physiology to counteract a drug, leading to you needing more of that substance in order to cause the same amount of effect as it used to
(e.g. a habitual coffee drinker will need more cups of coffee to produce the amount of same effect as was caused when he first started drinking coffee. This is because, overtime, his body has physiologically become more tolerant and less sensitive to caffeine)
role-taking
aids in the development of identity; seen when children experiment with other identifies by taking on the roles of others, such as when they play-pretend house or school. This practice enables a child to understand the perspectives and roles of others.
Theory of Mind
the ability to sense how another person’s mind works. Once a theory of mind is developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us, becoming aware of judgments from the outside world and react to those judgments. (e.g. the ability to understand how your friend is interpreting a story that you’re telling them)
Looking-glass Self
suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive/think that other people are viewing us.
(e.g. before going out with a group of friends, Jessica tries on many different outfits; with each wardrobe change, she is thinking about how others will perceive her appearance, thus her sell-concept is dependent on how SHE THINKS that others see her)
reference group
the people in which we compare ourselves to that then determines our own self-concept.
(e.g. even though the average salary of doctors is about $200,000 a year, which is almost QUADRUPLE that of the national median, 89% of doctors still claim that they are not “rich”. This may be due to the fact that doctors often live in rich neighborhoods and their responses are biased since they have a different reference group comprised of millionaires)
Biological
Perspective
(nature)
states that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain. Biological theorists believe that many personality traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy.
Behaviorist Perspective
nuture
states that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time; therefore any therapy should focus on learnign skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques
token economies
method used in inpatient therapy based on the behaviorist perspective, in which positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers. (often seen in elementary school classroooms where students who perform good behaviors/grades get “gold stars” and can eventually trade in these gold stars for toys, books, a no-homework pass, etc.)
Social Cognitive Perspective
nature + nurture
takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our personality, but also how we interact with that environment. According to social cognitive theorists, the best predictor of someone’s future behavior is their past behavior in similar situations.
reciprocal determinism
refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation (e.g. a stressful event can cause you to be depressed, and as a result some negative feelings can affect your behavior, such as pushing people away from your life, and thus can expose you to more stress)
dispositional approach
suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by your own personality
situational approach
suggests that your behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context
Schizophrenia
Suffer from delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and/or negative symptoms for more than 6 months. Thought to be related to excess DOPAMINE in the brain. Active symptoms generally preceded by Prodromal Phase, or phase of clearly deteriorating behavior with passive symptoms. Partially genetically inherited.
prodome
is an early symptom indicating the onset of a disease or illness. “Going downhill”.
Positive vs. Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia
positive symptoms: (what schizophrenics DO HAVE, but healthy people don’t)
• hallucinations
• delusions
• disorganized thought and behavior
negative symptoms: (what schizophrenics LACK but healthy people have)
• disturbance of affect
• avolition
thought broadcasting
a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one’s thoughts are broadast directly from one’s head to the external world
thought insertion
a positive symptom of schizophrenia in which one thinks that external thoughts are being placed in their head
loosening of associations
may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift rapidly from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would not be able to follow the train of thought
neologisms
occurs when a person with schizophrenia invents new words
echolalia
catatonic behavior that involves repeating another’s words
echopraxia
catatonic behavior that involves imitating another’s actions
anhedonia
loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities
Major Depressive EPISODE
APES & CIGS. At least 5 of the following symptoms must be met for at least 2 WEEKS
- Appetite disturbances, massive weight gain or loss
- Psychomotor Symptoms, feeling “slowed down”
- Energy, low energy, always feeling tired
- Sleep disturbances
- Concentration difficulty
- Interest loss. “Anhedonia”: formerly enjoyable things are no longer interesting
- Guilty and worthless feelings
- Suicidal thoughts or actions
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Major Depressive Disorder with a seasonal onset (winter months). May be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and is often treated with bright light therapy, where patient is exposed to a bright light for a period of time each day.
Dysthymia
Depressed mood that isn’t severe enough to meet criteria for a Major Depressive Episode.
Persistent Depressive Disorder
Suffering from Dysthymia for a long period of time, generally for at least 2 YEARS. May have occasional major depressive episodes.
Major Depressive DISORDER
At least one major depressive episode which causes significant distress or impairment of functioning.
Biological Markers:
- High glucose metabolism in the amygdala, aka the emotional center of the brain
- hippocampal atrophy
- high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- decreased noreptinepherine, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression)
Bipolar I Disorder
Manic Episodes with or WITHOUT Major Depressive Episodes
mnemonic: bipolar 1 is run (because a maniac runs wild
Bipolar II Disorder
Hypomania WITH Major Depressive Episodes
mnemonic: bipolar 2 is blue (requires a major depressive episode
Hypomania
Energetic and optimistic, but typically doesn’t impair functioning or have psychotic features
Cyclothymic Disorder
cycling between hypomania and dysthymia
Manic Episodes
DIG FAST. At least 3 of the following symptoms must be met for at least one week along with a persistently elevated mood.
- Distracted easily
- Insomnia
- Grandiosity
- Flight of Ideas (racing thoughts, fast thinkings)
- Agitated easily
- Speech (Pressured, increased talkativeness)
- Thoughtlessness, or high risk behavior
Monoamine/
Catecholamine Theory of Depression
states that:
• too much norepinephrine & serotinin in the synapse leads to Mania
• too little norepinephrine & serotonin in the synapse leads to Depression.
Agoraphobia
an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape. These individuals tend to be uncomfortable leaving their homes for fear of a panic attack or execerbation of another mental illness
Dissociative Amnesia
Amnesia not due to a neurological disorder but often times trauma. It is characterized by an inability to recall past experiences
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Multiple personality disorder, where 2+ personalities recurrently take control of a person’s behavior. Usually results from severe abuse as a child (e.g. as portrayed in the movie Split)
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Occurs after experiencing or witnessing traumatic event. Consists of following symptoms for at least one month (else called Acute Stress Disorder)
Intrusion: Reliving events including flashbacks or nightmares
Avoidance: Deliberate attempt to avoid people, places, objects, or actions associated with trauma
Negative Cognitive: Inability to recall key features of the event, moody, distant, negative view of world
Arousal: Easily startled, irritable, anxious, reckless behavior, insomnia
dissociative fugue
a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one’s home or location of usual daily activities. Individuals in a fugue state are confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity. Significantly they may actually believe that they are someone else, with a complete backstory
depersonalization
Individuals feel detached from their own mind and body. (e.g. an “out of body experience”; they feel like they feel like they’re watching themselves in a dream or behind a movie screen)
derealization
Individuals feel detached from their surroundings. (e.g. feeling like they’re in a dream and the world is not theirs; their possessions are not truly theirs; their surroundings are not one they can help to be in)
Somatic Sympton Disorder
Individual is experiencing symptoms and is disproportionately concerned about it, devotes a ton of time and energy to it, or is overly anxious about it. Symptoms may or may not be related to underlying medical condition
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Like Somatic Symptom Disorder, but without the symptoms. Individuals are consumed with the idea of having or developing a serious medical condition. Can obsessively check themselves for illness, or avoid medical appointments altogether.
Conversion Disorder
Unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions, usually after traumatic event. (e.g. claming to become blind as a result of seeing a traumatic event, yet there is no evidence of true neurological damagge)
la belle indifférence
seen in Conversion Disorder where the person may by suprisingly unconcerned by a symptom
ego-syntonic
Individual precieves their abnormal behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with goals. (e.g. thinking everyone else is wrong when they say you have a problem)
ego-dystonic
the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
Cluster A personality disorders
Paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid disorders. Considered odd or eccentric behavior.
“Weird.”
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Constant distrust of others. Constantly suspicious of other’s motives. May be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia.
Cluster B personality disorders
Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic. Overly dramatic and emotional behavior.
“Wild.”
Cluster C personality disorders
Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive. Anxious or fearful behavior.
“Worried”
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Disregard for rights of others. Repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for bad actions. More common in males than females. (e.g. showing no guilt for serious crime such as murder)
Borderline Personality Disorder
Instable behavior, mood, and self image. Often intense and unstable relationships. Intense fear of abandonment. Use “splitting” as a defense mechanisms where others are either pure good or evil. Suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common. Twice as common in females.
splitting
a defense mechanism used in borderline personality disorder in which the individual view others as all good or all bad (an an angel vs. devil mentality)
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Attention seeker. Drama queen. May use seductive behavior to gain attention.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Sense of grandeur, preoccupied with fantasies of own success, need for constant attention and admiration. Entitled. Very fragile self esteem and concerned with how others fiew them.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Odd or eccentric thinking. Have ideas of reference (everything is directed towards them…everything has a meaning in their own life somehow. There are no coincidences) as well as magical thinking
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Detachment from social relationships, restricted emotional expression. Little desire for socializing. Don’t have close friends, poor social skills.
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Extreme shyness and fear of rejection. See oneself as socially inept and isolated. Intense desire for social affection and acceptance. Tend to stay in the same job, life situation, and relationships despite wanting to change
Dependent Personality Disorder
Need continuous reassurance. Emotionally dependent on one specific person, such as parent or significant other
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
Perfectionistic and inflexible. Likes rules and order. Stubborn, routine, no desire to change. NOT SYNONYMOUS TO OCD. OCD is ego-dystonic (Must wash hands because of germs) while OCPD is ego-syntonic (I like rules and order). OCPD is lifelong.
Parkinson’s Disease
Damage to dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra for proper stimulation of the basal ganglia.
Symptoms:
- Slow Movement
- Resting Tremor
- Pill-rolling tremor (rolling fingers and thumbs together like you’re making a tiny booger)
- mask-like facial expressions
- Shuffling gait
- Cogwheel rigitiy (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement)
Alzheimer’s Disease
Dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and tendency to misplace things. Late stages include changes in mood, personality, poor judgement, loss of initiative, loss of procedural memory. Genetically linked.
Biological Markers:
- Diffuse Atrophy in brain CT/MRI
- Flattened Sulci in cerebral cortex
- Enlarged cerebral ventricles
- Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes
- Low Acetylcholine levels
- Low choline acetyltransferase enzyme
- Low metabolism in temporal and parietal lobs
- B-amyloid plaques (senile plaques)
- Neurofibrillar Tangles or hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Michelangelo Phenomenon
states that the concept of “self” is made up of both the intrapersonal self (the ideas you have regarding your own abilities, traits, and beliefs) and the interpersonal self (the manner in which other people influence the creation of your ideal self.
Interdependent individuals influence and “sculpt” each other to become closer to their ideal selves. Opposite of Blueberry Phenomenon.
Blueberry Phenomenon
Interdependent individuals bring out the worst in each other.
Social Action
actions and behaviors that we are conscious of and performing based on the certain people that are around. It is based on the idea that humans will behave in different ways depending on their social environment and how their behavior will affect/cause a reaction from those around them (e.g. our social action is different when we are with our college buddies vs. when we are during a medical school interview)
Social Facilitation
states that a person will perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others. (aka “social” society “faciliates” their performance success)
Yerks-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation
illustrates that for SIMPLE tasks, increased arousal (such as being in the presence of others) leads to stronger performance… BUT for COMPLEX tasks, increased arousal can lead to a decline in performance
Deindividuation
Being in the presence of a large group provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity, which can dramatically change behavior. May lead to antinormative behavior such as violence during a riot.
Anti normative Behavior
any behavior against the norm.
Bystander Effect
Individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. The more people who are standing by, the less likely someone is to help. (This is attributed to social cues. If no one seems alarmed of emergency, then individual is less likely to think that there is an emergency.)
In low danger scenarios, bystanders less likely to intervene. In high danger scenarios, bystanders are more likely to intervene.
A group made up of strangers has a slower response to emergency than a group of friends or well acquainted individuals.
Social Loafing
The tendency of an individual to put in less effort when in a group setting than they would individually. (e.g. putting in less effort in group powerpoint projects than you would if the project was to be completed individually)
Peer Pressure
The social influence placed on an individual by others who are considered equals (peers) than can modify or continue certain behavior, attitudes, or beliefs
Identity Shift Effect
Explains the mechanism of Peer Pressure: when an individual’s state of harmony is threatened by social rejection, the individual will conform to norms of the group. This causes the individual to experience internal conflict, so he/she will undergo an identity shift where he adopts the standards of the group as his own to elimiate cognitive dissonance.
(this is seen many times on TV episodes where the main character pretends to be somebody they’re not, in order to “fit in” or impress sombody. They are threatened by social rejection, so they conform to the norms of the other character’s group.)
Cognitive Dissonance
Simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. Usually leads to internal discomfort which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion.
Solomon Asch Conformity Experiment
Performed by Soloman Asch to show that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by a group. Participants were placed in a group with confederates and were given a card with a line on it along with a reference card with three lines of different sizes. They had to to unanimously decide which line A, B, or C matched the length of the first card. Confederates were secretly told to respond correctly or incorrectly. The results showed that the participants would sometimes provide answers they knew to be untrue if it avoided going against the group: the urge toward conformity could outweight the desire to provide the correct answer.
Social Interaction
Explores the ways in which 2+ individuals can both shape each other’s behavior.
Group Polarization
Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. Also called “Choice Shift”.
Groupthink
Phenomenon where desire for harmony or conformity results in a group coming to an incorrect or poor decision. This desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking. (e.g. unity of the group > evaluating decisions for better alternatives, leading to possible errors)
