One Health & Planetary Health Flashcards
(Roth et al., 2018)
Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD)
1. what does it describe?
2. examines and compares trends from and to?
3. what is difficult to quantify?
- mortality and morbidity from major diseases, injuries and risk factors to health at global, national, and regional levels
- trends from 1990 to the present, enabling understanding of changing health challenges
- health consequences of global environmental change: cause-consequence relationships may take place over different time spans
What is increasing life expectancy due to?
- health improvement in young populations, e.g. childhood immunisation early 20th century
- health improvement in older populations, e.g. heart disease treatment late 20th century
- health development, food development (more food, cheaper food, more easily accessible etc.)
Fresco (2009)
1. how has world population and the available calories per head changed?
2. what is the change in income spent on daily food worldwide?
3. Developing countries spending and what has improved?
- world population doubled while available calories per head increased by 25%
- households spend less income on their daily food than ever before, in order of 10-15% int he OECD countries, as compared to over 40% in the middle of the last century
- many developing countries still spend much higher (but declining) percentages, the diversity, quality and safety of food have improved nearly universally and stand at a historic high
Pretty et al. (2010)
1. how many people in the world are experiencing hunger and malnutrition, and what is it due to the lack of?
2. how many people in the world are overweight or obese, and what are they susceptible to?
3. externalities?
4. what is the nature of demand?
- one billion people experience hunger and malnutrition because of their lack of entitlements to access food
- another billion people in the world are overweight or obese and susceptible to diet-related diseases
- what we pay for food fails to account for the depletion of resources, impairment of ecosystem services, and the costs for human health
- the nature of demand is outstripping capacity to increase supply: do we need to rethink patterns of consumption?
Whitmee et al. (2015)
1. how much of suitable land surface has been converted and what has it been converted to?
2. how much of accessible freshwater is appropriated each year for human use?
3. change in species extinction rates?
4. how much of monitored fish species harvested at or beyond maximum sustainable yield?
- one third of suitable land surface converted for cropland and pasture
- half of all accessible freshwater
- species extinction rates more than 100 times of the fossil record
- 90% of all monitored fish species
“Planetary Heath Paradox”
The ecological footprint
1. human extracting resources from earth?
2. what is happening to the day when consumption becomes unsustainable?
- human extracts more resources from earth than can be replaced each year, overshooting the biocapacity of our planet
- the day when consumption becomes unsustainable is getting earlier every year
Diaz et al. (2019)
Loss of biodiversity and biotic homogenization
1. global threats to biodiversity?
2. IUCN Red List basis for assessing global extinction risk?
3. what drives “biotic homogenization”?
- 25% species are currently threatened with extinction
- but large species proportions remain data-deficient (terrestrial: 10.7%; freshwater: 20.8%, and marine: 21.9%)
- declining endemic species and spread of common species drives “biotic homogenization” - the convergence of biological communities
Bar-On et al. (2018)
The biomass distribution of Earth
1. where are plants, animals, and bacteria and archaea predominately located?
2. relationship between mass of humans (and livestock) and all wild mammals combined?
- plants (≈450 Gt C, the dominant kingdom) are primarily terrestrial, animals (≈2 Gt C) are mainly marine, and bacteria (≈70 Gt C) and archaea (≈7 Gt C) are predominantly located in deep subsurface environments
- mass of humans (and livestock) is an order of magnitude higher than that of all wild mammals combines
The biomass shift on Earth
1. How much livestock compared to wild mammals and birds?
2. human and livestock biomass change, and natural global carry capacity change?
- livestock outweighs wild mammals and birds ten-fold
- human and livestock biomass increases, while the natural global carry capacity decreases with habitat loss
Wells et al. (2018); Wells et al. (2020)
Parasite sharing among humans and other mammals
1. humans and mammalian species relationship with parasites?
2. humans and domestic animals relationship with parasites?
- humans share hundreds of parasites with hundreds of other mammalian species
- humans and domestic animals share most parasites, many at global scale
World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Perception Survey 2024
need to bother about infectious diseases no matter what we are interested in as all is interlinked
The Economical cost of Zoonoses
1. number of outbreaks 1997-2009, and estimated cost, and amount that could be saved if prevented?
2. cost of Ebola 2015 in Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone?
3. Covid-19 in UK in 2020?
- World Bank: 6 outbreaks (1997-2009) estimated to cost US$80 billion, US$6.7 billion/yr could be saved if prevented
- at least US$1.6 billion cost of Ebola 2015 in Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone
- Covid-19 in UK in 2020: on 25/11/20, the UK Office for Budget Responsibility estimated borrowing would be £394bn instead of £55bn for financial year
must prioritise prevention over responsive control
Boyles et al. (2011)
Economic importance: the worth of insectivorous bats
1. little brown bats consume how many insects per night?
2. what syndrome spread in US, and when was it first observed?
3. How many bats died of WNS?
4. How many bats killed by wind turbines by 2020 in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands alone?
5. how much was the pest suppression service by bats, and how much agricultural losses cost?
- 4 - 8 g
- White-nose syndrome (WNS) spread in US, first observed in 2006
- 1 million bats estimated to have died from WNS
- 33-111,000 bats will be killed annually by wind turbines by 2020 in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands alone
- pest suppression service by bats ~ $30/hectare
-> agricultural losses ~ $3.7 billion/yr in North America alone
Whitmee at al. (2015)
Safeguarding human and planetary health
1. what does human health and civilisation depend on?
2. what is happening to natural systems?
3. what do our societies face, and what does it require?
4. what does it call for?
5. what does it also call for?
6. how to address the drivers of environmental change?
- flourishing natural systems and their wise stewardship
- being degraded to an extent unprecedented in human history
- our societies face clear and potent dangers - require urgent and transformative actions to protect present and future generations
- improved governance to aid integration of social, economic, and environmental policies and for the application of interdisciplinary knowledge to strengthen planetary health
- redefinition of prosperity to focus on the enhancement of quality of life and delivery of improved health together with the integrity of natural systems
- by promoting sustainable and equitable patterns of consumption, reducing population growth, and harnessing the power of technology for change
EcoHealth - One Health - Planetary Health
1. Zoonotic diseases definition
2. what does understanding and managing zoonotic diseases require?
- “Zoonotic diseases (also known as zoonoses) are caused by germs that spread between animals and people”
- requires OneHealth approaches that account for inter interconnections between humans, animals and the planetary environment they share
Daszak et al. (2000)
Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID)
How is disease spread between:
1. wildlife EID?
2. wildlife EID and human EID?
3. human EID?
4. human EID and domestic animal EID?
5. domestic animal EID?
6. domestic animal EID and wildlife EID?
- translocation
- human encroachment, ex situ contact, ecological manipulation
- global travel, urbanisation, biomedical manipulation
- technology and industry
- agricultural intensification
- encroachment, introduction, “spill-over” and “spill-back”
Bean et al. (2013)
EID and the human - animal interface
1. where did many emerging infectious diseases affecting humans circulate in before?
2. what promotes infectious disease emergence?
- many emerging infectious diseases affecting humans circulated in wild and domestic animals before spilling over to humans
- -> humans- domestic animal- wildlife interfaces may promote infectious disease emergence
Parasites / pathogens
1. where do they live and obtain resources?
2. how many of species on Earth?
3. diversity of life forms?
- live on or in other organisms (hosts) and obtain resources at the host’s expense
- up to ~ 50% of species on Earth
- viruses, bacteria, protozoa, macroparasites, endoparasites, ectoparasites
Parasites
Diversity of transmission modes
direct - horizontal
sexual vs asexual
direct - vertical
food-borne
vector-borne - e.g. malaria
parasitism is everywhere: a highly successful mode of life
Epidemiological triad
1. what is caused when external agent and host are brought together?
2. what is a vector?
- causing the disease to occur in the host
- an organism which transmits infection by conveying the pathogen from one host to another without causing disease itself, may be part of the infectious process
definitions
1. parasitology
2. epidemiology
3. pathology/medical science
4. immunology
5. disease ecology
- parasite taxonomy and life cycles
- aims to identify risk factors for infectious and non-infectious diseases
- study and diagnosis of disease
- host defence/response
- ecological study of host-pathogen interactions within the context of their environment and evolution
“How pathogens spread and affect populations and species”
Epidemiological dynamics <-> demographic dynamics <-> system dynamics
One Health interface
what is needed to be synthesised to understand pathogen spread and health of humans and animals in different environments?
need to synthesise expertise from different disciplines in One Health approaches to understand pathogen spread and health of humans and animals in different environments
