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Basics of Anesthesia > OChem/BioChem Lecture > Flashcards

OChem/BioChem Lecture Flashcards

1
Q

What is Chemistry?

A

The study of matter and the changes it undergoes

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2
Q

What are the 3 things the Universe consists of?

A

Matter
Energy
Empty Space

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3
Q

How does Chemistry apply to Anesthesia?

A

understanding of chemistry is needed to fully comprehend many physiological processes related to metabolism, pharmacology, and trouble-shooting during critical situations

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4
Q

What functional group forms fatty acids?

A

Alkanes & Alkenes

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5
Q

What is the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry?

A

O: covalent, low melt point, insol h2o, sol in organic sol, non-conduct electricity, burn, slow reactions
I: ionic, high melt point, soluble in water, insol in organic sol, conduct elect, only few burn, quick reactions

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6
Q

What is organic chemistry?

A

Study of compounds containing Carbon (mainly, but also oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen)
also: phos, sulf, & halogens

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7
Q

What is Biochemistry?

A

Study of chemical reactions and compounds in living things

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8
Q

T/F Organic compounds are derived from or produced by living organisms, while Inorganic compounds are derived from nonliving components

A

Typically true, but both can be made from each other or in a lab

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9
Q

What are the Halogens?

A

Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine

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10
Q

What are the atomic numbers of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen?

A

H: 1
N: 7
O: 8

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11
Q

What is the major factor that is the basis of Hydrogen bonds?

A

Electronegativity: H2O for instance, oxygen needs 2 more electrons to complete valance shell thus bonds with the two hydrogens to complete shell.

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12
Q

What molecules are more form stronger bonds: polar or nonpolar?

A

Polar: unequal sharing of electrons (stronger bond), overall neutral charge
nonpolar: equal sharing of electrons, over all neg or pos

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13
Q

_______ material can be made in a lab from _______ material.

A

Organic, Inorganic

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14
Q

What causes the difference in properties between organic and inorganic material?

A

difference in structure

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15
Q

What is the Octet rule?

A

elements want 8 electrons in valence shell to be “stable”
Very low # of electrons: 2 stabilize shell

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16
Q

What element group has 7 electrons in valence shell?

A

Halogens

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17
Q

What’s the difference between an ionic and covalent bond?

A

covalent bonds share an electron, while ionic bonds take an electron from another molecule. this causes covalent bonds to be stronger due to electronegativity between the two molecules.

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18
Q

What is the most simple element?

A

Hydrogen

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19
Q

If a molecule takes an electron from another, this forms an _____ bond- creating an ____. This frequently results in a ___ charge.

A

ionic, ion, -1

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20
Q

What are most inhaled anesthetic gases halogenated ethers?

A

they are typically halogenated ethers OR ethers with a halogen attached bc it decreases flammability/toxicity

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21
Q

Why is Carbon such an important element?

A

it is a foundation for all living things, ranging in diverse size and complexity of compounds.

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22
Q

How many atoms can a single carbon form covalent bonds with?

A

6 atomic # - 2 on inner shell = 4 valence shell electrons = 4 covalent bonds to be formed (chains, branches, rings)

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23
Q

How does Hydrogen become stable since it only has one electron?

A

forms a covalent bond, sharing an electron (2 in valence shell) or loses electron and becomes an ion which makes it simply a proton (all that left)

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24
Q

How many bonds does nitrogen typically like to make and why?

A

atomic #: 7, has 2 outer shells. 1 lone pair of electrons in outer shell, 5 -2 on inside = 3 pairs preferred.
If 4 bonds, loses an electron and becomes slightly +

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25
Q

What is a major difference between nitrogen and oxygen?

A

oxygen has more protons in its core which tends to hog the electrons rather than completing shell - this makes it a polar compound, having a slightly variation of electronegativity on the molecule

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26
Q

What is the most electronegative element?

A

Fluorine
Oxygen is a close second

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27
Q

Why aren’t molecules with a high atomic weight highly electronegative?

A

They have more valence shells which decreases the attraction to the positive core. only electrons on outer shell can react w/ other molecules

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28
Q

T/F if carbon forms a compound with a positive element and the overall charge is +, carbon becomes +

A

False, carbon always remains neutral

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29
Q

What are the 6 Functional groups covered?

A
  1. Alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and arenes
  2. Alcohols
  3. Amines & Amides
    4.Carboxylic Acids (-COOH)
  4. Aldehydes & Ketones
  5. Esters
  6. Ethers
  7. Thiols & Sulfides
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30
Q

Hydrocarbons consist of:

A

Alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes, alkynes, and arenes

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31
Q

Saturated hydrocarbons w/ single bond (usually in a chain):

A

Alkanes

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32
Q

Cyclic hydrocarbon, saturated in a ring

A

Cycloalkane

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33
Q

T/F When a molecule forms double and triple bonds, it needs more hydrogens.

A

False, valance shell is already filled with these multiples, requiring less hydrogens

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34
Q

Double bonded unsaturated hydrocarbon chain:

A

Alkene

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35
Q

Triple bonded hydrocarbon chain:

A

Alkyne

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36
Q

Double bonded unsaturated hydrocarbon ring:

A

Arene

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37
Q

What are saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?

A

s: each carbons have max hydrogen bonds
uns: must have double or triple bonds OR a benzene ring to satisfy due to lack of hydrogens

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38
Q

What hydrocarbons are unsaturated?

A

Alkenes, alkynes, and arenes

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39
Q

Which two hydrocarbons are saturated?

A

Alkanes and cycloalkanes

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40
Q

Fats and oils are typically made of what functional group?

A

Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkynes, alkenes, and arenes

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41
Q

When alkanes contain ____ carbons they are gases @ room temp, while when the contain ____ carbons they are colorless liquids. High mol. weight alkanes containing ___+ carbons are white waxy soilds

A

1-4, 5-17, 18+

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42
Q

Paraffin wax, candles, and petroleum are examples of:

A

High molecular weight alkanes

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43
Q

____ & ____ are commonly called aliphatic hydrocarbons due to physical properties resembling fat chains in animal/plant fat/oils.

A

Alkanes and alkenes

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44
Q

What is the most important physical property of hydrocarbons?

A

Complete lack of polarity, thus insoluble in water due to pre-exsisting hydrogen bonds/carbon satisfaction.

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45
Q

Why do alkanes and alkenes have different states of matter at room temperature?

A

Alkanes are fully saturated hydrocarbons, which allows them to pack tightly and form a solid, while alkenes have a double bond which prevents them from packing tightly, thus taking on the form of a liquid.

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46
Q

Cyclopropane is an example of a _________.

A

Cycloalkane. It is an anesthetic gas no longer used due to the being Highly Explosive

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47
Q

What caused Cyclopropane to be highly explosive?

A

Alkanes can react with oxygen leading to oxidation or combustion = resulting in Carbon dioxide, H2o, and fire/explosions

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48
Q

Halothane is a mixture of

A

Halogens + Alkanes (halothane replaces a hydrogen molecule): formed to replace cyclopropane (+ less fires) no longer used due to hepatotoxicity + cardiac depression

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49
Q

What kind of bonds do benzene rings typically have?

A

unstable double bonds

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50
Q

What structure in arenes cause the (aromatic) property?

A

Benzene ring

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51
Q

Why should Benzene be used with caution?

A

Toxic in both vapor and liquid forms, long-term effects: liver damage & cancer

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52
Q

Alcohols contain a ____ group.

A

-OH (hydroxyl) group, bonded to a tetrahedral carbon atom (carbon w/ single bonds to 4 atoms)

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53
Q

What does “R” represent?

A

a simple Carbon-Hydrogen bond/used to simplify drawing

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54
Q

For an alcohol to be water soluble, how many carbons can be present in the “R” group?

A

3 or less carbons

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55
Q

What allows the alcohol to form a bond in water, becoming soluble?

A

The negative charge of the -OH hydroxyl group allows a bond with the hydrogens, thus allowing solublility

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56
Q

What are the effects of an increased concentration of carbons in the “R” group of an alcohol?

A

Alcohols are only soluble in water with small -OH chains, thus when the R chain becomes longer, the percentage of “R” in the molecule increases, and the percentage of “OH” in the molecule decreases. This reduces the interaction of R-OH with water.

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57
Q

What factor classifies alcohols?

A

number of carbons bonded to the hydroxyl group
primary, secondary, and tertiary

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58
Q

How are hydroxyl groups (-OH) used in the body?

A

Enzymes (alcohols) in the liver attach a hydroxyl group to a highly lipid soluble molecule, thus allowing it to become polar/water soluble to be excreted in the urine and bile.

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59
Q

Cholesterol is considered a:

A

Unsaturated alcohol due to double bonds w/ carbon- causing it to be NON polar/not soluble in water bc too many carbons

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60
Q

What are two major uses for cholesterol in the body?

A

Allows the cell wall membrane to have a bit of rigidity, used in forming endogenous steroids

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61
Q

Methane is an example of an ________ and is used as:

A

toxic, simple alcohol used as an insecticide or fuel source.

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62
Q

Amines & Amides are formed by ____ and ____ molecules which makes a ______.

A

Carbon, Nitrogen; Amino group

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63
Q

What classifies Amines as primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary?

A

How many bonds nitrogen can form with carbons (1-4)

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64
Q

What is a unique characteristic of Amines?

A

When an amine has 1-3 carbons it has a lone pair of electrons that allows it to remain neutral, BUT when a 4th carbon joins, it must donate an electron which gives the molecule an overall positive charge

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65
Q

What medications are examples of Amines?

A

Atropine: tertiary amine
Glycopyrrolate: quaternary amine
antimuscarinics that block acetylcholine

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66
Q

What’s the main difference between Atropine and Glycopyrrolate?

A

Overall charge: neutral molecules can cross BBB/cells/placenta, while charged meds do not enter CNS which prevent neuro side effects.

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67
Q

Which antimuscarinic is charged and why does this matter?

A

Glycopyrrolate, quaternary amine is charged which prevents crossing of BBB/placenta, preventing neurological effects

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68
Q

What’s the difference between Amides and Amines?

A

While amides still are made of carbon/nitrogen bonds, they carbon is Double bonded to an oxygen = carbonyl group

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69
Q

What is the most biologically important Amide?

A

Proteins

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70
Q

What elements form a carbonyl group and what functional group contains this?

A

carbon and oxygen; Amides

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71
Q

What functional group contains a Carboxyl group (-COOH) and what 2 things make a carboxyl group?

A

Carboxylic acids, it is the combination of carbonyl group (C=O) (amide) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) (alcohol)

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72
Q

What is an amidation reaction and why is it important?

A

Carboxylic acid (-COOH) + Amine (CN) = Amide
Important because this reaction is used to link amino acids together to form proteins (h2O is a byproduct)

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73
Q

What reaction is used to form proteins?

A

Amidation

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74
Q

Which 4 functional groups contain a Carbonyl group?

A

Aldehydes and ketones
Carboxylic Acids and Amides

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75
Q

Which two functional groups have strong odors?

A

ketones (aldehydes) and benzene rings (amine)

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76
Q

What two functional groups are in amino acids?

A

Carboxylic acid (-COOH) and Amine (C=O)

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77
Q

What occurs in a condensation reaction between amino acids?

A

h2o leaves, resulting in a peptide bond between the amino acids- forming a chain

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78
Q

A chain of amino acids forms a _____ and is considered a ________ chain.

A

Peptide, poly-peptide (primary structure of the protein)

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79
Q

What is considered the primary structure of a protein?

A

the polypeptide chain

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80
Q

What is the purpose of the “R’s” on the polypeptide chain?

A

They form unique structures off the poly-peptide chain that interact with those of other chains which forms secondary and tertiary structures

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81
Q

What occurs when two poly-peptide chains and their tertiary structure come together? What does this become?

A

This bonding forms a Macro- protein molecule- quaternary structure

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82
Q

What is a quaternary protein structure?

A

formed when two poly-peptide chains and their tertiary structures come together to form a macro molecule

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83
Q

A peptide bond is a ______ bond between two ______.

A

Covalent, amino acids

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84
Q

Aldehydes & Ketones contain what group and what is the difference between the two?

A

Carbonyl group (C=O)
Aldehyde : C=O + hydrogen
Ketone: C=O + 2 carbons

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85
Q

What are ketones and aldehydes commonly used for?

A

K: perfume, flavoring
A: fixative/preservative

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86
Q

How does formaldehyde work?

A

readily links proteins to others/DNA

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87
Q

What is Cinnamaldehyde?

A

Cinnamon derivative that gives taste/smell- can also be used for healing properties

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88
Q

Why are ketones important in biochemistry?

A

Ketones can be used as an alternative fuel source when lacking glucose which forces the body to break down fats for energy

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89
Q

Why can the “Keto” diet be dangerous?

A

Ketone metabolism forms acetone, acetoacetate, and 3-hydroxybutyrate in the liver which leads to ketoACIDOSIS

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90
Q

Why are ESTERs an important functional group in anesthesia?

A

Local anesthetics belong <3

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91
Q

What is another name for Esters and why?

A

Carboxylic esters, they’re derived from Carboxylic acid, but the H is replaced w a carbon (-COOR, or -CO2R)

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92
Q

Local Anesthetics are usually made from _____ or ______ groups.

A

Ethers or Amines
intermediate bond determines

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92
Q

What is the typical structure of a local anesthetic?

A

Aromatic group: lipophilic
Intermediate bond: Ester/Amine
Tertiary amine: hydrophilic

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93
Q

How to remember which locals belong to which class?

A

2 I’s: Amides
1 I: Esters
(each class has different properties

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94
Q

What functional group is used to form inhaled anesthetics?

A

Ethers: 1 oxygen + 2 carbons (COC)

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95
Q

What was the first ether used, when, and where?

A

Diethyl ether, 10/16/1846, ether dome Mass Gen, Boston (dentistry)

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96
Q

Why is Diethyl ether no longer used?

A

extremely flammable and irritating

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97
Q

What are the most commonly inhaled anesthetics, today?

A

Halogenated Ethers: Sevoflurane, Isoflurane, and Desflurane
Like halothane, hydrogen was replaced with halogens such as chlorine and fluorine

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98
Q

Which functional groups have a sulfhydryl group (-SH)?

A

Thiols & Sulfides
groups is bonded with a tetrahedral carbon

99
Q

What is the most common reaction that occurs with thiols?

A

Oxidation into disulfide: very strong covalent bond between two sulfurs (important for proteins)

100
Q

Which common amino acid contains a sulfhydryl group?

A

Cysteine (very strong links when present in peptide chain and side chain interactions reversible/ionic bonds[3-D formation])

101
Q

What are the notable physical properties of thiols & sulfides?

A

the smell: rotten egg, skunk, sewage
non-polar covalent

102
Q

What is Chirality?

A

an object being different than its mirror image
must have right and left handed versions bc they are different molecules

103
Q

What does it mean if an object is Achiral?

A

It means the object and its mirror image can be superimposed on each other and are the SAME molecule

104
Q

What are isomers?

A

molecules that contain the same molecules and number of molecules, they’re just arranged differently in space

105
Q

What is a Constitutional (structural) isomer?

A

same arrangement of the same atoms of a molecule with different bonding

106
Q

What is a stereoisomer?

A

same formula and arrangement with a different 3D orientation
further defined into chiral and achiral

107
Q

What is required for a molecule to be Chiral?

A

must contain +1 stereocenters (Chiral center) meaning the atom has 3-4 different attachment points

108
Q

Chiral compounds can be further defined as:

A

Enantiomers and Diastereiomers

109
Q

What are Diastereomers?

A

compounds with same formula and sequence of bonds that are not superimposable or mirror images of each other

110
Q

What are Enantiomers?

A

a type of stereoisomer that is not superimposable but they are mirror images
these are different molecules that have the same properties apart from how they interact with other chirals

111
Q

What is a racemic mixture?

A

50/50 mixture of R and L enantiomers (50% of drugs are supplied this way) they have different reactions, metabolisms, side effects physiologically

112
Q

What is Nomenclature?

A

names for configuration around the stereocenter
R: Right handed, Rectus
S: Left-handed, Sinister

113
Q

What is Optical Activity of enantiomers?

A

Dextrorotatory rotates light clockwise while Levorotatory rotates light counter clockwise

114
Q

What’s the difference between glucose and dextrose?

A

its the same moleculary, just named with a d because there is a l version too, it just cannot be metabolized/used at the cellular level. a silly nomenclature thing

115
Q

Why is levalbuterol some time used rather than albuterol?

A

less side effects of tachycardia

116
Q

What is Biochemistry defined as?

A

Chemistry of living things

117
Q

What are the main 4 molecules studied in biochemistry?

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic acids
118
Q

Proteins are polymers of:

A

Amino acids

119
Q

What is the function of lipids?

A

“fuels” that support biological reactions such as metabolism

120
Q

What is the purpose of Nucleic acids?

A

sugar polymers used to assist in the formation of DNA and RNA which are needed for transcription/translation of amino acids, and thus protein synthesis. these proteins are then used to form genes/genetics/mutations

121
Q

Why is Organic Chemistry needed to understand Biochemistry?

A

All the major molecules have specific functional groups that cause them to have certain properties/characteristics

122
Q

What is the abbreviation for carbohydrates?

A

CHO: they contain a variety of carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens

123
Q

C6H12O6 is the chemical makeup of what carbohydrate?

A

Glucose

124
Q

what functional groups are in carbohydrates?

A

ketone or aldehyde carbonyls and alcohol hydroxyl groups

125
Q

What is the clinical significance regarding different enantiomers of a molecule?

A

(R) and (L) enantiomers can have similar effects but have more/less preferred side effects, metabolism, etc. that make the use of a mixture beneficial rather than a pure substance.

126
Q

What is an example of a polyalcoholaldehyde?

A

Ketone (connected and branched in may different ways)

127
Q

Whats an example of a monosaccharide?

A

a simple sugar such as glucose (6 carbons), ribose, or deoxyribose (5 carbons)

128
Q

Whats an example of a Disaccharide?

A

Lactose (2 sugars linked via glycolytic bond)

128
Q

What’s an example of an oligosaccharide?

A

Glycogen, other starches

129
Q

What is the structure of glucose in an aqueous solution?

A

constantly transforming from a ring to linear continually, most frequently seen in ring formation

130
Q

Why does glucose and fructose technically have a “D” in front of the name?

A

It is the only type of sugar that can be used by the body. the (L) enantiomer cannot be broken down at a cellular level.

131
Q

D-glucose can be further divided into:

A

Alpha D-glucose and Beta D-glucose, transforms into the ring structure then into the other form; then back and forth

132
Q

What change prevents glucose from freely changing from Alpha to Beta forms?

A

Attachment of a polysaccharide
starches/glycogen: alpha lock while cellulose: beta locks

133
Q

T/F lipids are polar/water soluble

A

FALSE

134
Q

Which function group does propofol contain?

A

Phenols which are similar to alcohols, but have a ROH structure where the R represents a Benzene ring instead of the alkyl group in alcohols

135
Q

What are the roles of Lipids in the body?

A

energy storage, component of membranes, hormone/steroids, and cell signaling pathways

136
Q

What are the 5 classes of lipids?

A
  1. Free fatty acids
  2. Triacylglycerols
  3. Phospholipids
    4.Glycolipids
  4. Steroids
137
Q

What is the simplest lipid that is typically used as a main fuel source?

A

Free fatty acids (produces more ATP) unbranched carboxylic acid w/ variations in length/saturation (usually 10-20 carbons)

138
Q

What is the storage form of fatty acid?

A

Triacylglycerols (also called triglycerides)

139
Q

What type of lipids are attached to a phosphate group and are normally found in cell membranes?

A

Phospholipids

140
Q

What type of lipids are attached to a carbohydrate and are normally found in cell membranes?

A

Glycolipids

141
Q

What type of lipids are polycyclic hydrocarbons that can function as hormones or membrane components?

A

Steroids

142
Q

Unsaturation in fatty acids is caused by:

A

H=C (double bonds between hydrogen and carbon)

143
Q

What type of unsaturated fatty acid is more common: cis-isomer or trans-isomer?

A

Cis-isomer: Hydrogens on same side (bend in chain), Trans-isomer: opposite sides allowing it to still pack together closely which accounts for it’s physical properties

144
Q

Can unsaturated fatty acids have greater than one double bond?

A

Yes, this is called a poly-unsaturated fat rather than a (mono-unsaturated

145
Q

T/F Fatty acids normally have an even # of carbons

A

True, because the body metabolizes/breaks down two at a time

146
Q

What are triglycerides made of?

A

Tri-esters of glycerol with a long carboxylic acid chain (fatty acid) (mono and di are less common but do exist)

147
Q

Triglycerides have a ______ backbone and three _____ ____ chains.

A

Glycerol, fatty acid

148
Q

What is the process of Sapification?

A

it is the addition of a base to fats/oils to form glycerol in a mixture of fatty acid salts

149
Q

What type of fatty acids are found in adipose cells?

A

Triglycerides

150
Q

Phospholipids consist of a _____ head and a _____ tail.

A

polar, nonpolar

151
Q

How do phospholipids form a lipid bilayer?

A

the polar heads face the aqueous environment on both sides (inside and outside), while the fatty acid tails meet in the middle, forming the membrane

152
Q

What are the 4 components of a phospholipid?

A
  1. Alcohol
  2. Phosphate (+ head)
  3. Glycerol backbone
  4. nonpolar fatty acid tail (2)
153
Q

Apart from structure and protection, how else does the cell membrane function?

A

selective transport for nutrients and waste products

154
Q

Are phospholipid fatty acids saturated or unsaturated?

A

unsaturated so they are more “fluid-like”, not packing too closely which would form a rigid membrane

155
Q

How do glycolipids function?

A

usually are bound to cells, acting like receptors or assist with cell-to-cell communication/signal transduction

156
Q

What is the structure and function of steroids?

A

polycyclic hydrocarbons; hormones or membrane components (cholesterol)

157
Q

What is the structure of steroids/cholesterol?

A

3 six-sided rings and a five-sided ring

158
Q

What is the most abundant steroid and it’s functions?

A

cholesterol- cell membrane, hormone synthesis, and synthesis of bile salts

159
Q

What is arguably the most important biological compound?

A

Proteins due to having many functions physiologically

160
Q

What are the two major subtypes of proteins?

A

Globular: soluble in water, nonstructural
Fibrous: insoluble in water, structural functions

161
Q

________ are the structural building blocks of proteins

A

amino acids

162
Q

How many different amino acids are there?

A

about 20. they consist of a central carbon bonded to an amino, carboxyl, hydrogen, and “R” side chain

163
Q

How are amino acids linked together?

A

Peptide bonds: hydrophobic/nonpolar, hydrophilic/polar, positively charged, or negatively charged

164
Q

What’s the difference between essential and nonessential amino acids?

A

non-essential: produced by body
essential: diet

165
Q

What is the substituent of an amino acid?

A

the side chain that gives them different characteristics and assist in 3-D formation via interactions with other proteins

166
Q

What are the 4 main structures of proteins?

A
  1. Primary
  2. Secondary
  3. Tertiary
  4. Quaternary
167
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

chain of amino acids

168
Q

What is the secondary protein structure?

A

folding chain into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets

169
Q

What is the tertiary protein structure?

A

the 3-D folding pattern caused by side chain interactions

170
Q

What is the Quaternary protein structure?

A

a protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain

171
Q

A short chain of amino acids is defined as a _____ and usually consists of ___-___ amino acids

A

peptide, 10-20 (but up to 50)

172
Q

A long chain of amino acids is defined as a _____ and usually consists of _____ amino acids

A

Protein, 100’s
(made of polypeptides (several peptides))

173
Q

What bonds occur in side chain interactions?

A

many weak bonds such as ionic, hydrogen, hydrophobic, and van der wal interactions that are strong together

174
Q

What type of bond allows primary structures to form secondary protein structures?

A

Hydrogen bonding (initially with peptide)

175
Q

A G-protein coupled receptor is an example of a ________ protein structure

A

Tertiary, alpha helices have been folded many times to form a globular protein that sits on the cell membrane

176
Q

T/F for protein structure to be functional, they must be quaternary structures.

A

FALSE, tertiary are also functional

177
Q

______ bonds between _____ groups cause _____ structures to fold into 3-D proteins

A

Covalent, Sulfhydro, tertiary

178
Q

Hemoglobin is an example of a _______ protein structure

A

Quaternary (more than one amino acid chain)

179
Q

Hemoglobin has ____ _____ structural proteins that can carry one O2 molecule each

A

4, tertiary
(each RBC contains 300 million hemoglobin molecules)

180
Q

________ is frequently mentioned when discussing diet and exercise which is the:

A

Metabolism, break down of food and drink into energy

181
Q

Biochemistry metabolism is further defined as:

A

total amount of chemical reactions needed to maintain healthy operation of cells for all biological processes

182
Q

Metabolic pathways produce high potential energy molecules such as:

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), which is technically a nucleotide

183
Q

How are carbohydrates and triglycerides metabolized into energy for the body?

A

chemical reactions:
glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
Glycogenesis & glycogenolysis, the citric acid cycle (Kreb’s), oxidative phosphorylation & electron transport chain, Fatty acid/lipid metabolism & Beta Oxidation, Amino acid synthesis/degradation and the urea cycle

184
Q

When are proteins broken down?

A

Proteins can be broken down and used as an energy source during a starvation state which is not preferred but are routinely broken down during growth, regeneration, and catabolism

185
Q

When there is an acute need for glucose, what happens when it enters the cell?

A

it immediately undergoes glycolysis > pyruvate > acetyl Co-A which then enters the Krebs cycle

186
Q

What molecule the is a derivative of glucose is able to enter the Krebs cycle?

A

Acetyl Co-A

187
Q

T/F the Krebs cycle requires oxygen

A

False, only the Oxidative Phosphorylation/electron transport chain needs oxygen because it is the FINAL electron receptor. this is there the majority of ATP is produced during glucose metabolism

188
Q

Which process of glucose metabolism is considered “cellular respiration”

A

Oxidative Phosphorylation, Electron Transport Chain

189
Q

How many molecules of ATP are produced via the entire process of metabolizing one molecule of glucose? (in the presence of oxygen)

A

32 total: 2 glycolysis, 2 krebs, 28 ETC

190
Q

Where does the electron transport chain reaction occur in the cell?

A

inner folds of the mitochondria

191
Q

What occurs if there IS sufficient glucose in the cell when more glucose enters?

A

It is stored: glycogenesis or it is used via Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)

192
Q

What occurs during the Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)

A

forms ribosugars for DNA/RNA and NADPH

193
Q

What is NADPH?

A

a molecule used to build other molecules and/or detoxify intracellular reactive species of oxygens (antioxidant)

194
Q

What is glycolysis and how many ATP are formed during this process?

A

break down of glucose, 2 ATP. occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.

195
Q

What is gluconeogenesis and where does it occur?

A

The formation of glucose from a noncarbohydrate molecule (amino acids, lipids, lactate). occurs in the liver

196
Q

What organ can only use glucose for energy?

A

Brain

197
Q

What is glycogenesis?

A

creation of the stored form of glucose “glycogen”

198
Q

What occurs during Glycogenolysis?

A

glycogen is broken back down into glucose

199
Q

Where in the cell is pyruvate converted into acetyl coa?

A

in the mitochondria

200
Q

What occurs during the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)? How much ATP is produced?

A

a series of Redo (reduction/oxidation) reactions which is the addition/removal of electrons that release potential energy, 2 ATP

201
Q

What are the 2 important byproducts of the Krebs cycle that go to the electron transport chain?

A

FADH/NADH, they have extra electrons

202
Q

What structures cause oxidative phosphorylation to occur?

A

4 protein complexes (globular), that couples redox reactions, FADH/NADH power the chain, then the ATP synthase catalyses the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

203
Q

Which is more complicated: lipid or glucose metabolism?

A

lipid metabolism: triglycerides are broken down into individual fatty acids during lipolysis then their byproducts enter Beta Oxidation

204
Q

Which process creates more acetyl coa, lipid or glucose metabolism?

A

lipid, it is created via Beta Oxidation

205
Q

How much ATP is produced via lipid metabolism?

A

it depends on the length of the fatty acid chain/number of carbons but can be >120 ATP

206
Q

Lipids via Beta Oxidation are the primary energy source for:

A

Heart

207
Q

How are ketones formed during metabolism?

A

they are a byproduct of beta oxidation but can be used as energy for the brain during starvation: ketone > acetyl coa > krebs > ETC

208
Q

Where do fatty acids go to undergo beta oxidation?

A

mitochondria of the liver

209
Q

What is the urea cycle?

A

Ammonia is a (toxic) byproduct of amino acid/protein metabolism, it is then broken down into urea by the liver to be then excreted by the kidneys

210
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

DNA and RNA which are made up of nucleotides

211
Q

What 3 molecules/compounds form nucleotides?

A
  1. phosphate
  2. nitrogen
  3. sugar (ribose & deoxyribose)
212
Q

What are the DNA nitrogenous bases (and their pairs)?

A

Cytosine
Thymine
Adenine
Guanine

213
Q

What is the difference in nucleotides between DNA and RNA?

A

in RNA, Uracil replaces Thymine
the nucleotides also arent bonded in RNA as they are in DNA structures (RNA can bind to and fold on self)

214
Q

T/F nucleotides are only used to form nucleic acids

A

FALSE: ATP, major cellular energy source is a nucleotide
cAMP, a cell-to-cell messenger is also a nucleotide

215
Q

What are the 3 particles that form ATP?

A

Adenine
Ribose ring
Phosphate (3)

216
Q

Which reaction releases more energy ATP > ADP or ADP > AMP?

A

ATP > ADP, removal of the second phosphate group releases much less energy than the first

217
Q

How is cAMP formed?

A

AMP bonds with oxygen and carbon, forming a ring which is the “cyclic” portion of the molecule, phosphodiesterase prevents this formation for occuring (PDE’s break down to ^ cAMP)

218
Q

Adenine is always paired with:

A

Thymine/Uracil

219
Q

Guanine is always paired with:

A

Cytosine

220
Q

How are nucleotide paired bonded and why are they specific to each other?

A

hydrogen bonds. A/T/U can form 2 bonds, while G/C can form 3

221
Q

What forms the phosphate deoxyribose “backbone”?

A

formation of nucleotide pairs

222
Q

How much DNA is in each cell?

A

3 billion base pairs

223
Q

How does so much DNA fit in a tiny cell?

A

it is tightly packed to histones that pack tightly to other histones that form chromosomes

224
Q

What is a histone?

A

a protein structure that organizes genetic material

225
Q

What occurs during DNA replication?

A

DNA replicates self prior to division. Helicase unzips strand while DNA polymerase frees nucleotides, forming a chain = 2 copies of same info

226
Q

How does DNA polymerase work?

A

slides down unzipped (thx 2 helicase) DNA strand and removes nucleotides, inserting them into a chain that copies the information

227
Q

What is the first step to protein transcription?

A

gene expression, occurs in the cytoplasm

228
Q

What occurs after gene expression?

A

the copied section of DNA sequences makes mRNA which then finds a Ribosome

229
Q

What does a ribosome do with a section of mRNA?

A

the mRNA is then copied with tRNA which can hold an amino acid to link and form a protein chain

230
Q

What is the protein chain formed by tRNA then considered?

A

a primary protein structure !!

231
Q

What is the difference between ribose and deoxyribose?

A

ribose has an extra hydroxyl group

232
Q

What is a codon?

A

specific bases needed for a specific amino acid, used by tRNA to form protein chain

233
Q

What 3 structures can be produced by RNA?

A

mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA

234
Q

Translation is also known as ______ ________ and occurs when the mRNA attaches to the _____ (Ribosome)

A

Protein synthesis, rRNA

235
Q

What is the role of the ribosome in protein synthesis?

A

the mRNA moves through the ribosome and tRNA enters to identify base matches, the tRNA connects the matches of mRNA to form an amino acid chain

236
Q

What environmental factors can cause a DNA mutation?

A

radiation, carcinogens, and reactive oxygens

237
Q

What are the two ways the body tries to fix DNA mutations?

A

Homologous recombination: uses another copy of DNA to repair, usually successful
Non-homologous end joining: no other DNA available- attempts to join ends to fix mutation

238
Q

Why is non-homologous end joining less effective?

A

The order of nucleotide pairs pairs are usually disrupted by this method which can form damaged or non functional amino acids and proteins (pauses replication & programs apoptosis)

239
Q

What occurs when genetic mutations are replicated into gamete cells?

A

the offspring carries the gene mutation

240
Q

Why do polymorphisms matter?

A

they only occur in about 1% of the population but cause an alteration in response to medications: this can rationalize why people have different reactions to medications/doses

241
Q

What is a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP/SNV)

A

change in amino acid codon, which occurs in just one pair and codes for a different amino acid but doesnt always change the function of the protein unless in a critical location (like folding)

242
Q

what is the deletion of several nucleotides (up to an entire chromosome) called in polymorphisms?

A

Insertion/deletion
can be found in an entire population or be confined to face/sex/gender

243
Q

What is the process of producing new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate precursors?

A

Gluconeogenesis

244
Q

What cellular process requires oxygen to produce ATP?

A

Oxidative Phosphorylation

245
Q

Why do phospholipids form bilayers in cell membranes?

A

They have polar head and nonpolar tails

Basics of Anesthesia (3 decks)

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