Occupational Language Theorists Flashcards
What is social talk in the workplace?
Phatic talk.
What is the Plain English Campaign?
A campaign established to ensure that documents produced by companies are clear and understandable.
What is instrumental power?
A type of power which is explicit and often imposed by the highest authority.
What is transactional speech?
Language which is used to make a transaction, and creates a result. It is different from interactional language which is used to maintain relationships.
What does Howard Giles (1973) argue in terms of accommodation theory?
Speakers will try to make their language resemble and be more in line with that of their audience in order to improve communication. in contrast, some speakers may attempt to use language to distance and distinguish themselves from others. this links to overt and covert prestige.
What does Chaedar (1986) define ‘Jargon’ as?
Jargon is a set of terms and expressions used by a social group or worker, but not used and often not understood by speech society as a whole. Usually, groups in the community use jargon to communicate using their own specific languages.
What do Herbert and Straight (1989) suggest in terms of compliments?
Claimed that compliments usually flow from a person of higher authority to a person of lower authority. Deflecting/negating compliment shows that the addressee is superior. Compliments flow down the hierarchy from those in the highest position to those in the lowest.
What do Drew and Heritage (1992) argue in terms of ‘inferential frameworks’?
Claims that members of a discourse community show inferential frameworks. Where knowledge is built up over time and used in order to understand implicit meanings. Jargon makes the workplace efficient. Occupational language has an inferential framework which is about how members have a shared way of communicating, thinking and behaving. In terms of language, this includes enforced turn taking, conversation which is goal-orientated, asymmetry and jargon.
What does Jennifer Hornyak (1994) identify in terms of ‘personal talk’?
Suggested that the shift from talk to personal talk is always initiated by the highest ranked person in the room. Workplace conversations are usually initiated by the person with the most power.
What does Norman Fairclough (1994) characterise ‘conversationalisation’ to be?
Conversationalisation is a style of public discourse that simulates intimacy by adopting features of informal, conversational language. It is also known as public colloquial. Conversationalisation involves a restructuring of the boundary between public and private orders of discourse, a highly unstable boundary in contemporary society characterized by ongoing tension and change. Conversationalisation is also consequently partly to do with shifting boundaries between written and spoken discourse practices, and a rising prestige and status for spoken language.
Susan Githens (1998) identify within computer mediated communication?
Computer mediated communication. Found that men and women communicate differently via computer mediated communication too, recognising Tannen’s key distinctions being passed over into computer mediated forms of communication such as emails.
What did Bernard Spolsky (1998) characterise ‘Jargon’ to be?
Jargon is in-group variety which serves not only to label new and needed concepts but also to create bonds among the members of a certain group and enforce boundaries for people outside the group. Using jargon shows that you are a part of the discourse community. However, not knowing it can make you feel like you do not belong.
What does Janet Holmes (1998) suggest female managers are more likely to do?
Found that female managers seemed to be more likely to negotiate consensus than male managers and take time to ensure all members are in agreement. They are less likely to just ‘plough through the agenda’, taking time to make sure everyone genuinely agrees with what has been decided.
What did Janet Holmes and Maria Stubbe (2003) suggest in terms of ‘power’?
When someone with power talks to someone with less power, they can decide to downplay or assert their authority.
What did Almut Koester (2004) suggest in terms of ‘public talk’?
Stressed the importance of public talk in workplaces. Claimed that social interactions form an important part of the inferential framework and discourse community. Phatic talk helps form solidarity with workmates which is important for the professional environment. A key part of workplace discourse is phatic communication - conversations can either be transactional or interactional.
What did Janet Holmes (2005) suggest in terms of ‘humour’?
Found that, contrary to popular belief, women used just as much humour as males, and for the same reasons; to control discourse and contest superiors but are more likely to encourage supportive and collaborative humour.
What does John Swales (2011) propose in terms of ‘discourse communities’?
Proposed the idea of a discourse community as a group of people that aim to achieve a specific and shared goal in a conversation, achieved through the use of intercommunication among members of the community.
What does Irving Goffman (1955) suggest on ‘saving face’?
Suggested that we present a particular image of ourselves to others. This ‘image is called presenting ‘face,’ where one tries to maintain a ‘positive social value’. One may try to ‘save face,’ where they maintain the image that they propose to avoid humiliation.
What do John French and Bertram Raven (1959) suggest on the five types of power?
Reward Power is typically financial when talking about a leader within a company, for example the ability to reward your team members with things like bonuses or pay raises.
Expert Power is achieved when someone finds themselves in a position of power based on their knowledge or experience.
Legitimate Power can also be referred to a ‘title power’, because it is the power that comes along with being appointed to a specific position.
Coercive Power is the opposite of reward power and is based on the ability to take things away. In the workplace this would normally mean being able to demote or fire someone.
Referent Power is power that is not achieved by any of the above, and may be based on something intangible like popularity, attitude, or charm.
What does Paul Grice (1975) argue on cooperation?
Grice claims that when we communicate, we subconsciously assume that we, and the people we will be talking to, will be conversationally cooperative to achieve mutual conversational ends.
What did Wareing (1999) suggest on ‘power’?
Proposed two main types of power in discourse:
Instrumental power: Explicit power used by people or groups to exert hierarchical authority over others.
Influential power: This is influencing or persuading others, rather than using authority.
What did Norman Fairclough (2001) suggest on ‘power’?
Proposed two types of power:
Power in discourse: features and methods of speech is used to set up and enact power relations.
Power behind discourse: the context that enables power to be established (authority or legality etc.).
