Obstetrics Flashcards
What is done at a booking visit?
Identify high risk women who need additional care
General information = diet, alcohol, smoking, folic acid, vitamin D, antenatal classes, pregnancy care pathway, maternity benefits, how baby develops
BP, urine dipstick, check BMI
Bloods = FBC, blood group, rhesus status, red cell alloantibodies, haemoglobinopathies
Screening = Hep B, syphilis, HIV
Urine culture = asymptomatic bacteriuria
When is the first scan done
10-13+6 wks
When is OGTT offered to those at high risk of GDM
24-28 wks
o Fasting >5.6mmol/l
o 2hrs >7.8mmol/l
When is anti-D prophylaxis given to rhesus neg
1st 28 wks
2nd 34 wks
Conditions which are screened for in pregnancy
Anaemia
Bacteriuria
Blood group, Rhesus status and anti-red cell antibodies
Down’s syndrome
Fetal anomalies
Hepatitis B
HIV
Neural tube defects
Risk factors for pre-eclampsia
Syphilis
Down’s syndrome results on quad testing
Low alpha-fetoprotein
Low unconjugated oestriol
High Human chorionic gonadotrophin
High Inhibin A
Edward’s syndrome results on quad testing
Low AFP
Low unconjugated oestriol
Low HCG
Normal Inhibin A
Neural tube defects results on quad testing
High AFP
Normal unconjugated oestriol
Normal HCG
Normal Inhibin A
Findings on fetal anomaly scan
- Anencephaly
- Spina bifida
- Gastroschisis
- Exomphalos
- Trisomies
- Cleft lip
- Bilateral renal agenesis
- Diaphragmatic hernia
- Serious cardiac abnormalities
- Lethal skeletal dysplasia
Investigations for anaemia during pregnancy
- Screening at booking clinic and 28 weeks gestation
- Haemoglobinopathy screening for thalassaemia and sickle cell disease
- Ferritin, B12, folate
Indications for oral iron therapy in pregnancy
o First trimester <110g/l
o Second/third trimester <105g/l
o Postpartum <100g/L
Management of anaemia in pregnancy
- Iron deficiency Ferrous sulphate 200mg 3xday
- B12 deficiency
o Test for pernicious anaemia = intrinsic factor antibodies
o IM hydroxocobalamin injections
o Oral cyanocobalamin tablets - Folate deficiency Folic acid 5mg daily
- Thalassaemia and sickle cell
o Management with specialist haematologist
o Folic acid 5mg
o Close monitoring
o Transfusions
Causes of folic acid deficiency in pregnancy
- Phenytoin
- Methotrexate
- Pregnancy
- Alcohol excess
High risk groups for folate deficiency
- Either partner has NTD
- Previous pregnancy affected by NTD
- Family history of NTD
- Woman taking antiepileptic drugs
- Maternal coeliac disease
- Maternal diabetes
- Maternal thalassaemia
- Obesity
Prevention of folic acid deficiency
- All women take 400mcg until 12th week of pregnancy
- Women at higher risk of conceiving child with NTD take 5mg folic acid from before conception until 12th week of pregnancy
Complications of folic acid deficiency
- Macrocytic, megaloblastic anaemia
- Neural tube defects
Risk factors for gestational diabetes
- Previous gestational diabetes
- Previous macrosomic baby (>/= 4.5kg)
- BMI >30
- Ethnic origin = black Caribbean, Middle Eastern and South Asian
- FHx of diabetes
Presentation of gestational diabetes
- Large for dates fetus
- Polyhydramnios (increased amniotic fluid)
- Glucose on urine dipstick
Management of gestational diabetes
- Taught about self-monitoring of blood glucose
- 4 weekly USS to measure fetal growth and amniotic fluid volume from 28-36 wks
- If fasting glucose <7mmol/l
o Diet and exercise 1-2 weeks
o Then metformin then short-acting insulin - If fasting glucose >7mmol/l Start insulin
- Target glucose levels
o Fasting 5.3
o 1 hr after meals 7.8
o 2 hrs after meals 6.4 - OGTT 6 wks postpartum to ensure returned to normal
- Medications stopped after delivery
Management of pre-existing diabetes in pregnancy
- Weight loss for women BMI >27
- Stop oral hypoglycaemic agents (apart from metformin and commence insulin)
- Folic acid 5mg/day from pre-conception to 12wks
- Detailed anomaly scan at 20 wks
- Tight glycaemic control
- Treat retinopathy
Complications for gestational diabetes
- Large for dates fetus and macrosomia
- Shoulder dystocia = McRoberts position
- Type 2 DM after pregnancy
- Neonatal hypoglycaemia
What is gestational hypertension
- Pregnancy induced hypertension developing after 20 weeks gestation
- BP returns to normal within 6 wks of delivery
Risk factors for gestational hypertension
- Primigravidity
- Young female (x3 risk)
- Black (x2 risk)
- Multifetal pregnancies
- Hypertension
- Renal disease
- Collagen vascular disease
Management of gestational hypertension
- Mild = 140/90-159/109
o Check BP and proteinuria once or twice weekly
o Start labetalol
o Blood tests at presentation and weekly - Severe >160/110
o Admit to hospital
o Start labetalol
o Measure BP every 15-30 mins until <160/110
o Check for proteinuria daily
o Discharge when BP <140/90
Management of pre-existing hypertension in pregnancy
- Review medications in women with pre-existing HTN
- ACEi and ARBs teratogenic
o Switch to labetalol (CI in asthma)
o 2nd line = nifedipine
o 3rd methyldopa (CI. In depression) - Regular checking for proteinuria If 1+ proteinuria arrange for 24hr urine collection
- Placental growth factor-based testing between 20-35 wks
- US 28-30 wks and 32-34 wks Fetal growth, Amniotic fluid volume, Umbilical artery doppler
- 2-4 weekly appointments if well controlled
- Weekly if poorly controlled
What is pre-eclampsia
Gestational hypertension and organ damage after 20 weeks gestation
Risk factors for pre-eclampsia
- High risk
o Pre-existing hypertension
o Previous gestational hypertension/pre-eclampsia
o Existing condition = CKD, SLE, DM - Moderate risk
o First pregnancy
o Older than 40
o More than 10 years since previous pregnancy
o BMI >35
o Family history of pre-eclampsia
o Multiple pregnancy
Presentation of pre-eclampsia
- Usually asymptomatic
- Severe pre-eclampsia
o Visual disturbances or blurriness
o Headache
o Papilloedema
o RUQ/epigastric pain
o N+V
o Hyperreflexia/ankle clonus
o Platelets <100, abnormal liver enzymes, HELLP syndrome
o Oedema
Diagnostic criteria for pre-eclampsia
- New onset Hypertension (>140/90 after 20wks pregnancy)
- Proteinuria >/= 0.3g /24hr
Investigations for pre-eclampsia
- Scoring systems (fullPIERS or PREP-S)
- Urinalysis to exclude differentials and confirm diagnosis
- At diagnosis and every 2 wks
o CTG
o Foetal monitoring with US = fetal growth and amniotic fluid volume
o Uterine artery doppler - Monitoring for organ dysfunction
o Low Hb, low platelets
o High urea, creatinine, urate, low urine output
o Raised ALT and AST
o Clotting
Prevention of pre-eclampsia
Aspirin prophylaxis if 1 high-risk factor or more than one moderate-risk factor from 12 wks gestation
Management of pre-eclampsia
- Initial assessment
o Arrange emergency secondary care assessment for ALL woman with suspected pre-eclampsia
o BP >160/110 are likely to be admitted and observed - Anti-hypertensives
1. Oral Labetolol
2. Nifedipine - Palliate maternal condition to allow fetal maturation and cervical ripening
- Only cure is delivery of baby
o Mild = delivery by 37 wks
o Moderate/severe = delivery at 34-36 wks with steroids given
o IV magnesium sulphate = given during labour and 24 hours after to prevent seizures
o Fluid restriction during labour
Indications for delivery in pre-eclampsia
- Maternal
o Gestational age 38 wks
o Platelet count >100 000 cells/mm3
o Progressive deterioration in liver and renal function
o Suspected abruptio placentae
o Persistent severe headaches, visual changes, nausea, epigastric pain or vomiting - Fetal
o Severe fetal growth restriction
o Non-reassuring fetal testing results
o Oligohydramnios
Maternal complications of pre-eclampsia
o Eclampsia = generalised tonic clonic seizures, altered mental status, blindness, stroke, clonus, severe headaches, persistent visual scotomata
o Cerebrovascular accident
o Haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count (HELLP syndrome)
o Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
o Liver failure
o Renal failure
o Pulmonary oedema
Fetal complications of pre-eclampsia
o Intrauterine growth restriction
o Preterm birth
o Placental abruption
o Hypoxia
Maternal risk of obesity in pregnancy
- Miscarriage
- VTE
- Gestational diabetes
- Pre-eclampsia
- Dysfunctional labour, induced labour
- PPH
- Wound infections
- C-section
Fetal risks of obesity in pregnancy
- Congenital anomaly
- Prematurity
- Macrosomia
- Stillbirth
- Increased risk of developing obesity and metabolic disorder in childhood
- Neonatal death
Management of obesity in pregnancy
- Obese women should take 5mg folic acid rather than 400mcg
- Do not advise to diet during pregnancy
- Screened for gestational diabetes with OGTT at 24-28 wks
- If BMI >35 = consultant-led obstetric unit
- If BMI >40 = antenatal consultation with obstetric anaesthetist and plan made
Management of UTI in pregnancy
- 7 days Abx
o Nitrofurantoin (avoid in 3rd trimester neonatal haemolysis)
o Amoxicillin
o Cefalexin - Avoid trimethoprim in 1st trimester folate antagonist
Complications of UTI in pregnancy
- Increase risk of preterm delivery
- Low birth weight
- Pre-eclampsia
Risk factors for VTE in pregnancy
- Smoking
- Parity >/= 3
- Age >35
- BMI >30
- Reduced mobility
- Multiple pregnancy
- Pre-eclampsia
- Gross varicose veins
- Immobility
- Family history of VTE
- Thrombophilia
- IVF pregnancy
Prophylaxis of VTE in pregnancy
- LMWH = enoxaparin, dalteparin, tinzaparin
o Prophylaxis at 28 wks in 3 RF
o Prophylaxis from 12wks if 4+ RF - Intermittent pneumatic compressor
- Anti-embolic compression stockings
- Avoid DOACs and warfarin
Postpartum management of VTE
- LMWH for 6 wks if previous VTE, Anyone who had antenatal LMWH, High risk thrombophilia, Low risk thrombophilia and FHx
- LMWH at least 10 days if
o C-section
o BMI >40
o Readmission/prolonged admission (>3 days)
o Any surgical procedure
o Medical comorbidities (cancer, HF, SLE, OBD, SCD)
Management of VTE in pregnancy
- Suspected DVT Compression duplex US undertaken where clinical suspicion of DVT
- Suspected PE
o ECG and CXR
o Also with Sx of DVT, compression duplex US
o Confirmed DVT = treat with LMWH first
What is hyperemesis gravidarum
Extreme nausea and vomiting in pregnancy caused by raised bHCG levels
Associations of hyperemesis gravidarum
- Multiple pregnancies
- Trophoblastic disease
- Hyperthyroidism
- Nulliparity
- Obesity
Protective factor for hyperemesis gravidarum
Smoking
Presentation of hyperemesis gravidarum
- Most common between 8-12 wks and may persist up to 20wks
- N+V
- Dizziness
- Low BP (Hypovolaemia)
Diagnosis of hyperemesis gravidarum
- 5% pre-pregnancy weight loss + dehydration + electrolyte imbalance
- Pregnancy-Unique Quantification of Emesis score (severity)
Referral criteria for hyperemesis gravidarum
- Continued N+V and unable to keep down liquids or oral antiemetics
- Continued N+V with ketonuria and/or weight loss (>5% body weight) despite treatment with oral antiemetics
- Confirmed/suspected comorbidity (unable to tolerate oral Abx for UTI)
- Low threshold for admission if co-existing condition that may adversely affected by N+V
Management of hyperemesis gravidarum
- Eat small and often
- 1st line = antihistamines
o Oral cyclizine or oral promethazine
o Oral prochlorperazine (alternative) - 2nd line = ondansetron and metoclopramide
o Metoclopramide only for 5 days (extrapyramidal S/E)
o Ondansetron in 1st trimester increases risk of cleft lip/palate - Admission may be needed for IV hydration
o If not tolerating oral fluids
o >5% weight loss
o Ketones on urine dip
Complications of hyperemesis gravidarum
- Wernicke’s encephalopathy
- Mallory-Weiss tear
- Central pontine myelinolysis
- Acute tubular necrosis
- Fetal: SGA, pre-term birth
What is large for gestational age
- EFW >90th centile
- Severe LGA >97th centile
- Birthweight more than 4.5kg
Causes of LGA
- Constitutional
- Maternal diabetes
- Previous macrosomia
- Maternal obesity or rapid weight gain
- Overdue
- Male baby
Investigations of LGA
- USS = EFW and exclude polyhydramnios
- OGTT = GDM
Management of LGA
- Most women with LGA baby have successful vaginal delivery
- No need to induce labour based on purely macrosomia
- Reduce risk of shoulder dystocia
o Consultant led unit
o Experienced midwife or obstetrician delivery
o Access to obs and theatre if required
o Active management of 3rd stage
o Early decision for c-section
o Paed at birth
Maternal complications of LGA
o Shoulder dystocia = shoulder fails to deliver after head
o Failure to progress
o 3rd degree Perineal tears
o Instrumental delivery or caesarean
o PPH
o Uterine rupture
Fetal complications of LGA
o Birth injury = Erbs palsy (C5/6), clavicular fracture, fetal distress, hypoxia
o Neonatal hypoglycaemia
o Obesity in childhood and later life
o Type 2 diabetes in adulthood
What is small for gestational age
- Infant with birth weight <10th centile for its gestational age
- Severe = <3rd centile
- Low birth weight <2500g
Major risk factors for SGA
o Maternal age >40
o Smoker >/11 day
o Previous SGA baby
o Maternal/paternal SGA
o Previous stillbirth
o Cocaine use
o Daily vigorous exercise
o Maternal disease
o Heavy bleeding
o Low pregnancy associated plasma protein
Minor risk factors for SGA
o Maternal age >=35
o Smoker 1-10/day
o Nulliparity
o BMI <20 or 25-34.9
o IVF singleton
o Previous pre-eclampsia
o Pregnancy interval <6 or >/= 60 months
o Low fruit intake pre-pregnancy
- Autoimmune disease
- Renal disease
- Diabetes
- Chronic hypertension
Presentation of SGA
- Reduced amniotic fluid volume
- Symmetrically small = constitutionally small
- Asymmetrically small = placental insufficiency
Investigations of SGA
- USS including HC and AC USS biometrics (EFW and AC) plotted on customised centile chart
- Ratio of head circumference and AC
o Symmetrically small = constitutional cause
o Asymmetrically small = placental insufficiency - Detailed fetal anatomical survey
- Uterine artery doppler
- Karyotyping
- Screening for infections (congenital CMV, toxoplasmosis, syphilis, malaria)
Prevention of SGA
- Modifiable RF managed = smoking cessation, optimising maternal disease
- High risk pre-eclampsia = 75mg aspirin 16 weeks gestation until delivery
Management of SGA
- Surveillance
o UAD repeat every 14 days
o If abnormal repeat more frequently or consider delivery
o Symphysis fundal height
o Middle cerebral artery doppler
o Ductus venosus Doppler
o CTG
o Amniotic fluid volume - Delivery
o <37 weeks if absent/reverse end-diastolic flow on doppler = C-section
o By 37 weeks if abnormal UAD/MCA doppler = induction
o At 37 weeks if normal UAD = induction
o Give single course antenatal steroids if before 37 weeks
o Continuous fetal heart monitoring required from onset of contractions
Antenatal complications of SGA
Fetal growth restriction, Stillbirth
Neonatal complications of SGA
o Birth asphyxia
o Meconium aspiration
o Hypothermia
o Hypo/hyperglycaemia
o Polycythaemia
o Retinopathy of prematurity
o Persistent pulmonary hypertension
o Necrotising enterocolitis
Long-term complications of SGA
o Cerebral palsy
o T2DM, obesity, HTN
o Precocious puberty
o Behaviour problems
o Depression
o Alzheimer’s disease
o Cancer = breast, ovarian, colon, lung and blood
What is polyhydramnios
Abnormally large level of amniotic fluid during pregnancy (above 95th centile for gestational age) = >2000ml
Causes of polyhydramnios
- Idiopathic (50-60%)
- Any condition that prevents fetus from swallowing
o oesophageal atresia
o CNS abnormalities
o muscular dystrophies
o congenital diaphragmatic hernia obstructing oesophagus - Duodenal atresia (double bubble sign on US)
- Anaemia
- Fetal hydrops
- Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome
- Increased lung secretions
- Genetic or chromosomal abnormalities
- Maternal diabetes
- Maternal ingestion of lithium
- Macrosomia
Presentation of polyhydramnios
Maternal breathlessness
Investigations for polyhydramnios
- Examination = Palpate uterus
- US Amniotic fluid index >24cm, Maximum pool depth
- Doppler = detect fetal anaemia
- Maternal glucose tolerance test
- Karyotyping
- TORCH screen
- Maternal red cell antibodies (routinely at 28 wks)
Management of polyhydramnios
- No intervention required in most
- If symptoms severe, amnioreduction considered
- Indomethacin
o Enhance water retention and reduce fetal urine output
o Associated with premature closure of ductus arteriosus
o Not used beyond 32 wks - Baby examined before first feed by paediatrician if idiopathic
o NG tube passed to ensure not tracheoesophageal fistula or oesophageal atresia
Complications of polyhydramnios
- Increased perinatal mortality
- Malpresentation
- Cord prolapse
- PPH
What is oligohydramnios
Low level of amniotic fluid during pregnancy (<5th centile for gestational age) = <200ml
Causes of oligohydramnios
- Preterm prelabour rupture of membranes
- Placental insufficiency
- Renal agenesis (Potter’s syndrome)
- Non-functioning fetal kidneys (bilateral multicystic dysplastic kidneys)
- Obstructive uropathy
- Genetic/chromosomal anomalies
- Viral infections
Investigations of oligohydramnios
- Symphysis fundal height
- Speculum examination = pool of liquor in vagina (PPROM)
- US
o Amniotic fluid index = measuring max cord-free vertical pocket of fluid in 4 quadrants of uterus (<5cm)
o Max pool depth = vertical measurement in any area - Karyotyping
Management of oligohydramnios
- Treat underlying cause
- Ruptured membrane (PPROM)
o Labour likely to commence within 24-48 hrs in most pregnancies
o If PROM and where labour doesn’t start, induction of labour considered around 34-36 wks
o Course of steroids given to aid fetal lung development
o Abx to reduce risk of ascending infection - Placental insufficiency = Babies likely to be delivered before 36-37 wks
Complications of oligohydramnios
- Premature complications
- Infection
- Severe muscle contractions in fetus
- Poor prognosis if in 2nd trimester
Types of presentation
- Lie – relationship between long axis of fetus and mother
- Presentation – fetal part that first enters the maternal pelvis
- Position – position of fetal head as it exists birth canal
Risk factors for malpresentation
- Prematurity
- Multiple pregnancy
- Uterine abnormalities (fibroids, partial septate uterus)
- Fetal abnormalities
- Placenta praevia
- Primiparity
Management of malpresentation
- Abnormal lie = External cephalic version (37 weeks or 36 if nulliparous)
o Tocolytics (terbutaline)
o Anti-D for rhesus negative women - Delivery method
o Elective C-section
o Attempt vaginal delivery
Complications of external cephalic version
o Fetal distress
o Pre-PROM
o APH
o Placental abruption
o C-section in 24 hours
Risk factors for breech presentation
- Uterine malformations, fibroids
- Placenta praevia
- Polyhydramnios/oligohydramnios
- Fetal abnormality
- Prematurity
Management of breech presentation
- If <36 wks, many fetuses will turn spontaneously
- If still breech at 36 wks = external cephalic version (ECV)
o 36 wks = nulliparous women
o 37 wks = multiparous women - If baby still breech then delivery options = planned caesarean section or vaginal delivery
Absolute contraindication to ECV
- Where caesarean delivery required
- APH within last 7 days
- Abnormal CTG
- Major uterine anomaly
- Ruptured membranes
- Multiple pregnancy
Complications of breech
Cord prolapse
Types of multiple pregnancies
- Monozygotic = identical twins (from a single zygote)
- Dizygotic = non-identical (two different zygotes)
- Monoamniotic = single amniotic sacs
- Diamniotic = two separate amniotic sacs
- Monochorionic = share single placenta
- Dichorionic = two separate placentas
Presentation of multiple pregnancies
- Lambda sign (twin peak sign) = triangular appearance indicating dichorionic twin pregnancy
- T sign = indicates monochorionic twin pregnancy
Antenatal management of multiple pregnancies
- Additional monitoring for anaemia with FBC Booking clinic, 20wks, 28wks
- Additional USS to monitor fetal growth restriction, unequal growth and twin-twin transfusion syndrome
o 2 weekly scans from 16 wks for mono
o 4 weekly scans from 20 wks for di - Planned birth
o 32 and 33+6 wks = uncomplicated monochorionic monoamniotic
o 36 and 36+6 wks = uncomplicated monochorionic diamniotic
o 37 and 37+6 wks = uncomplicated dichorionic diamniotic
o Before 35+6 for triplets - Corticosteroids given before delivery = mature lungs
Delivery of multiple pregnancies
- Monoamniotic twins = elective c-section
- Diamniotic twins
o Vaginal delivery when first baby has cephalic presentation
o C-section may be required for second baby after successful birth of first
o Elective c-section advised when presenting twin is not cephalic
Maternal complications of multiple pregnancies
- Anaemia
- Polyhydramnios
- Hypertension
- Malpresentation
- Spontaneous preterm birth
- Instrumental delivery or caesarean
- PPH
Fetal complications of multiple pregnancies
- Miscarriage
- Stillbirth
- Fetal growth restriction
- Prematurity
- Twin-twin transfusion syndrome
- Twin anaemia polycythaemia sequence
- Congenital abnormalities
Risk factors for obstetric cholestasis
- Hep C
- Multiple pregnancy
- Previous obstetric cholestasis
- Gallstones
Presentation of obstetric cholestasis
- Generally presents in 3rd trimester
- Intense pruritus on palms, soles, abdo (Worse at night)
- Anorexia
- Malaise
- Epigastric discomfort
- Steatorrhoea
- Dark urine
LFTs in obstetric cholestasis
raised AST, ALT, bilirubin
Management of obstetric cholestasis
- Weekly monitoring of LFTs
- Ursodeoxycholic acid
- Vitamin K supplements
- Induction of labour at 37-38 weeks
Complications of obstetric cholestasis
- Premature birth and stillbirth
- Recurrence is high in subsequent pregnancies
What is reduced fetal movements
Less than 10 movements within 2hrs in pregnancies past 28 wks gestation
Risk factors for reduced fetal movements
- Posture
- Distraction
- Placental and fetal position = anterior placentas
- Medication Both alcohol and sedative medications (opiates or benzos)
- Obesity
- Both oligohydramnios and polyhydramnios
- Fetal size = SGA fetus
Investigations of reduced fetal movements
- Maternal perception
- If past 28 wks gestation
o Handheld Doppler to confirm fetal heartbeat
o No fetal heartbeat detectable, immediate US
o If fetal heartbeat present, CTG used for at least 20 mins to monitor fetal heart rate - If between 24-28 wks Handheld doppler to confirm fetal heartbeat
- If below 24 wks and fetal movements previously been felt Handheld doppler
- If fetal movements not yet been felt by 24 wks
- onward referral made to maternal fetal medicine unit
Presentation of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder
- Microcepahly
- Flat philtrum
- Thin upper lip
- Low set ears
- IUGR short stature in adulthodd
- Developmental delay
- Learning disability
- Behavioural problems = hyperactivity, sleep, langiage delay
- ASD and VSD
- Hearing and visual impairment
Presentation of opioid use during pregnancy
- Structural abnormalities
- IUGR
- Neurodevelopmental abnormalities
- Respiratory depression in neonate
- SIDS
- Neonatal withdrawal syndrome
Presentation of stimulant drug use in pregnancy
- Structural abnormalities
- IUGR
- Early miscarriage/preterm labour/stillbirth
- Placental abruption
- SIDS
Presentation of smoking in pregnancy
- Increased risk of miscarriage
- Preterm labour
- Stillbirth and IUGR
- SIDS
Risks of cocaine use in pregnancy
- Maternal risks
o Hypertension pre-eclampsia
o Placental abruption - Fetal risk
o Prematurity
o Neonatal abstinence syndrome
Causes of antepartum haemorrhage
- Painless
o Placenta previa
o Vasa previa - Painful
o Placenta accrete/precreta
o Placental abruption
o Uterine abruption
Classification of antepartum haemorrhage
- Spotting = spot of blood noticed on underwear
- Minor haemorrhage <50ml
- Major haemorrhage 50-1000ml
- Massive haemorrhage >1000ml or signs of shock
What is placenta accreta
Placenta attaches to myometrium due to defective decidua basalis
Classifications of placenta accreta
- Placenta accrete = attach to myometrium
- Placenta increta = invade into the myometrium
- Placenta percreta = placenta implanted through wall into surroundings (perimetrium)
Risk factors for placenta accreta
- Previous uterine surgery
- IVF
- Previous c-section
- Maternal age >35
- Placenta praevia
Management of placenta accreta
- Antenatal steroids
- Planned C-section at 35-36+6 wks
What is placenta praevia
Placenta is implanted in lower uterine segment or over internal cervical os
Risk factors for placenta praevia
- Previous caesarean sections
- Previous placenta praevia
- Older maternal age
- Maternal smoking
- Structural uterine abnormalities (fibroids)
- Assisted reproduction (IVF)
- Multiparity
Grades of placenta praevia
- Minor (grade 1) = placenta is lower in uterus but not reaching internal cervical os (ICO)
- Marginal (grade 2) = placenta is reaching but not covering ICO
- Partial praevia (grade 3) = placenta is partially covering ICO
- Complete (grade 4) = placenta completely covering ICO
Management of placenta praevia
- Repeat transvaginal USS at 32 wks and 36 wks
o If still present at 32 weeks or grade I/II scan every 2 weeks
o US at 36wks determine method of delivery - Corticosteroids (34-36 wks) = mature fetal lungs
- Method of delivery
o Planned caesarean delivery (37-38 wks)
o Emergency c-section if goes into labour prior to elective c-section
o Potential for vaginal delivery if >20mm from os - If bleeding admit and ABCDE to stabilse
o Emergency c-section if not stablised or term reached or in labour
Complications of placenta praevia
- Antepartum haemorrhage
- Emergency caesarean section
- Emergency hysterectomy
- Maternal anaemia and transfusions
- Preterm birth and low birth weight
- Stillbirth
What is vasa praevia
Fetal vessels are within fetal membranes and below fetal presenting part (travel across the internal cervical os)
Risk factors for vasa praevia
- Low lying placenta
- IVF pregnancy
- Multiple pregnancy
Types of vasa praevia
- Type 1 = fetal vessels are exposed as velamentous umbilical cord
- Type 2 = fetal vessels are exposed as they travel to accessory placental lobe
Vaginal exam of vasa praevia
pulsating fetal vessels seen in membranes through dilated cervix
Management of vasa praevia
- Asymptomatic
o Give corticosteroids from 32 wks to mature fetal lungs
o Planned caesarean section (34-36 wks) - Antepartum haemorrhage = Emergency c-section
Risk factors for placental abruption
- Abruption previously
- Blood pressure (Pre-eclampsia)
- Ruptured membranes (premature or prolonged)
- Uterine injury (trauma to abdomen = domestic violence)
- Polyhydramnios
- Twins/multiple gestation (multigravida, fetal growth restriction)
- Infection in uterus (chorioamnionitis)
- Older age
- Narcotic use (Cocaine or amphetamine use, smoking)
Presentation of placental abruption
- Sudden onset severe continuous abdo pain
- Vaginal bleeding
- Shock = hypotension and tachycardia
- “Woody” abdomen on palpation (large haemorrhage)
Management of placental abruption
- Urgent involvement of senior obstetrician, midwife, anaesthetist
o ABCDE 2x grey cannula, Bloods (FBC, UE, coagulation studies), Crossmatch 4 units of blood
o Fluid and blood resuscitation as required
o CTG monitoring of fetus and close monitoring of mother - Antenatal steroids offered 24-34+6 weeks gestation = mature fetal lungs for preterm delivery
- Rhesus D neg = anti-D prophylaxis
- Fetus alive and <36 wks
o Fetal distress = immediate caesarean
o No fetal distress = observe closely, steroids, no tocolysis, threshold to deliver depends on gestation - Fetus alive and >36 wks
o Fetal distress = immediate caesarean
o No fetal distress = vaginal delivery - Fetus dead Induce vaginal delivery
Complications of placental abruption
- Maternal Shock, DIC, Renal failure, PPH
- Fetal IUGR, Hypoxia, Death
Post-exposure prophylaxis for chickenpox
- If unsure about immunity test for varicella antibodies
- If <20 weeks gestation and not immune
o Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG) ASAP
o Effective up to 10 days post exposure - If >20 weeks gestation and not immune
o Either VZIG or antivirals (acyclovir) given for 7-14 days post exposure
Management of chickenpox in pregnancy
- Chickenpox in pregnancy
- Specialist advice sought
- Increased risk of serious chickenpox infection and fetal varicella risk
- Oral acyclovir given if >20 weeks and presents within 24 hrs of onset of rash
- If <20 wks acyclovir considered with caution
Complications of chickenpox in pregnancy
- Maternal = pneumonitis
- Fetus
o Fetal varicella syndrome = skin scarring, eye defects, limb hypoplasia, microcephaly, learning disabilities
o Shingles in infancy
o Severe neonatal varicella
What is cord prolapse
Umbilical cord descends below presenting part of fetus and through cervix into vagina after rupture of fetal membranes
Risk factors for cord prolapse
- Abnormal lie/presentation of fetus after 37 wks gestation (unstable, transverse, oblique)
- Prematurity
- Multiparity
- Polyhydramnios
- Twin/multiple pregnancy
- Cephalopelvic disproportion
- Artificial rupture of membranes
- Premature ROM
- Long cord
Management of cord prolapse
- OBSTETRIC EMERGENCY
- Constant monitoring
- Presenting part pushed upwards to prevent compression
- If cord past level of introitus
o Cord should be kept warm and wet = avoid vasospasm
o Minimal handling whilst waiting for delivery - Woman go on all fours (left lateral position alternative)
- Retrofilling bladder
o 500-700ml of saline = elevates presenting part - Tocolytic mediation (terbutaline)
o Minimise contractions whilst waiting for delivery - Emergency c-section
o Normal vaginal delivery has high risk of cord compression and significant hypoxia to baby
o Instrumental vaginal delivery possible if cervix fully dilated and head low
Risk factors for uterine rupture
- Previous c-section
- Vaginal birth after caesarean
- Previous uterine surgery
- Increased BMI
- High parity
- Increased age
- Induction of labour
- Use of oxytocin to stimulate contractions
Presentation of uterine rupture
- Acutely unwell mother
- Abnormal CTG
- Abdominal pain
- Vaginal bleeding
- Ceasing of uterine contractions
- Hypotension
- Maternal tachycardia
- Collapse = sudden maternal shock
- Disappearance of presenting part from pelvis
Management of uterine rupture
- OBSTETRIC EMERGENCY
- Resuscitation and transfusion may be required
- Emergency c-section Deliver baby, High flow O2 and IV fluids, Stop any bleeding, Repair or remove uterus
Presentation of amniotic fluid embolism
- Anaphylaxis
- Sudden dyspnoea
- Hypoxia
- Hypotension
- Seizures
- Cardiac arrest
Active management of third stage of labour
o IM oxytocin to help uterus contract
o Careful traction to umbilical cord to guide placenta out of uterus and vagina
o Shortens 3rd stage and reduces risk of bleeding
o Can be associated with nausea and vomiting
o Offered to all women
o Initiated if haemorrhage or prolonged third stage (>60mins)
o Usually <30 mins
Indications for CTG monitoring
- Sepsis
- Maternal tachycardia (>120)
- Significant meconium
- Pre-eclampsia (>160/110)
- Fresh antepartum haemorrhage
- Delay in labour
- Use of oxytocin
- Disproportionate maternal pain
Indications for induction
- Post maturity (T+10)
- Pre-eclampsia
- Diabetes mother >38 wks
- Growth restriction
- Reduced fetal movements
- PPROM
- Obstetric cholestasis (at 37 wks)
- In utero death
Bishop score
- Fetal station
- Cervical position
- Cervical dilation
- Cervical effacement
- Cervical consistency
- If <5 = unlikely to progress without induction
- Score >8 = cervix ripe and ready for labour
Methods of induction of labour
- Membrane sweep
- Vaginal prostaglandin E2
- Balloon catheter
- Artificial ROM and syntocin
Indications for an instrumental delivery
- Failure to progress
- Fetal distress
- Maternal exhaustion
- Control of head in various fetal positions
Risks to mother of instrumental delivery
- PPH
- Episiotomy
- Perineal tears
- Injury to anal sphincter
- Incontinence of bladder or bowel
- Nerve injury (obturator or femoral nerve)
Risks to baby with instrumental delivery
- Cephalohaematoma (Ventouse)
- Facial nerve palsy (forceps)
- Caput succedaneum
- Subgaleal haemorrhage
- Intracranial haemorrhage
- Skull fracture
- Spinal cord injury
- Bruises on baby’s face
- Fat necrosis hardened lumps of fat on cheeks
Indications for caesarean section
- Absolute cephalopelvic disproportion
- Placenta praevia grades ¾
- Pre-eclampsia
- Post-maturity
- IUGR
- Fetal distress in labour/prolapsed cord
- Failure of labour to progress
- Malpresentations: brow
- Placental abruption: if fetal distress not dead
- Vaginal infection = active herpes
- Cervical cancer
Categories of caesarean section
- 1= Immediate threat to life of mother or baby
o Suspected uterine rupture
o Major placental abruption
o Cord prolapse
o Fetal hypoxia
o Persistent fetal bradycardia
o Delivery of baby within 30mins of making decision - 2 = Maternal or fetal compromise which is not immediately-life threatening
o Delivery of baby within 75 mins - 3 = Mother and baby stable
o Delivery required - 4 = Elective caesarean
Serious maternal risks of caesarean
o Emergency hysterectomy
o Need for further surgery at later date (retained placental tissue)
o Admission to ICU
o Thromboembolic disease
o Bladder injury
o Ureteric injury
o Death
Serious risks to future pregancies with caesarean
o uterine rupture
o antepartum stillbirth
o placenta praevia and placenta accrete
Frequent risks with caesarean sections
- Maternal
o Persistent wound and abdominal discomfort in first few moths after surgery
o Increased risk of repeat c-section when vaginal delivery attempted in subsequent pregnancies
o Readmission to hospital
o Haemorrhage
o Infection = wound, endometritis, UTI - Fetal Lacerations
Vaginal birth after caesarean
o Planned VBAC is appropriate method of delivery for pregnant women at >37 wks with single previous caesarean delivery
o 70-75% women have successful VBAC
o Contraindications = previous uterine rupture, classical caesarean scar
Causes of failure to progress in labour
- Large for gestational age
- Shoulder dystocia
- Malpresentation
- Obstructed labour
- Hypoactive uterus
- Cephalopelvic disproportion
Failure to progress in labour is considered when
- 1st stage
o Less than 2cm of cervical dilatation in 4 hours
o Slowing of progress in multiparous women - 2nd stage
o Nulliparous women >2hrs
o Multiparous women >1hr - 3rd stage
o >30mins with active management
o >60mins with physiological management
Progression in labour influenced by
- Power = insufficient uterine contractions
- Passenger = macrosomia, malpresentation, malposition
- Passage = bony pelvis, fibroids, cephalopelvic disproportion
- Psyche = support and antenatal preparation for labour and delivery
Management of failure to progress
- 1st line = Amniotomy (artificial rupture of membranes)
- Changing positions
- Encouragement
- Analgesia
- 2nd line = Oxytocin infusion
- Episiotomy
- Instrumental delivery
- Caesarean section
What is premature labour
- Rupture of membranes = amniotic sac ruptured
- Spontaneous rupture of membranes = amniotic sac ruptured spontaneously
- Prelabour rupture of membranes = amniotic sac ruptured before onset of labour
- Prolonged rupture of membranes = amniotic sac ruptures >18hrs before delivery
- Prematurity = birth before 37 wks
Management of PPROM
- Prophylactic Abx = Erythromycin 250mg x4 daily for 10 days
- Induction of labour = offered from 34 wks
Management of preterm labour with intact membranes
- Fetal monitoring
- Tocolysis with nifedipine = stop uterine contractions
o Alternative = atosiban
o Used between 24-33+6 wks
o Allows time for further fetal development, administration of steroids or transfer to more specialist unit - Maternal corticosteroids = offered before 35 wks
o Reduce respiratory distress syndrome
o Used with suspected preterm labour of <36 wks - IV magnesium sulfate
o given within 24hrs of delivery
o Babies before 34 wks to protect baby’s brain
o Reduces risk of cerebral palsy
o Mother’s need close monitoring for magnesium toxicity for at least 4 hourly
o Delayed cord clamping or cord milking = increase circulating blood volume and Hb in baby at birth
Risk factors for Group B strep
- Prematurity
- Prolonged rupture of membranes
- Previous sibling GBS infection
- Maternal pyrexia (secondary to chorioamnionitis)
Management of Group B strep
- Women with pyrexia during labour given benzylpenicillin
- Vancomycin if known severe penicillin allergy
- Erythromycin used with PPROM
Risk factors for shoulder dystocia
- Macrosomia
- Maternal DM
- Previous shoulder dystocia
- Post maturity
- Obesity
- Prolonged labour
Management of shoulder dystocia
- Call for help
- Episiotomy
- McRoberts position = hyperflexed at hips
- Suprapubic pressure
- Rotational manoeuvres
MAternal complications of shoulder dystocia
- Vaginal tear
- PPH
- PTSD
- Bladder/uterine rupture
Fetal complications of shoulder dystocia
- Hypoxia
- Cerebral palsy
- Brachial plexus injury
o Erbs palsy = C5/6
o Klumpke’s palsy = C8-T1 - Fractured humerus or clavicle
Management of postpartum thyroiditis
- Thyrotoxic phase Propranolol (Sx control)
- Hypothyroid phase Thyroxine
Classifications of postpartum haemorrhage
- Minor PPH = <1000ml blood loss
- Major moderate PPH = 1000-2000ml blood loss
- Major Severe PPH = >2000ml blood loss
Risk factors for PPH
- Previous PPH
- Prolonged third stage
- Pre-eclampsia
- Placenta accrete, praevia
- Polyhydramnios
- Placenta (retained)
- Perineal tear (or episiotomy)
- Pregnancy (multiple)
- Obesity
- Large baby
- Failure to progress in second stage of labour
- Instrumental delivery
- General anaesthesia
- Increased maternal age
Causes of PPH
- Tone (uterine atony)
- Trauma (perineal tear)
- Tissue (retained placenta)
- Thrombin (bleeding disorder)
- Secondary (24hrs to 12wks after deliver)
o Retained products of conception
o Infection (endometritis)
Prevention of PPH
- Treating anaemia during ANC
- Give birth with empty bladder
- Active management of third stage (IM oxytocin)
- IV tranexamic acid used in c-section in higher-risk patients
Emergency management of PPH
- OBSTETRIC EMERGENCY
- Resuscitation with ABCDE
- Lie woman flat, keep warm and communicate with her and partner
- Insert two large-bore cannulas
- Bloods for FBC, U+E, clotting screen
- Group and cross match 4 units
- Warmed IV fluid and blood resuscitation as required
- Oxygen
- Fresh frozen plasma (clotting abnormalities or after 4 units blood)
- In severe cases, activate major haemorrhage protocol
o Rapid access to 4 units of crossmatched or O neg blood
1st line bleeding management in PPH
o Uterine massage
o Catheterisation = bladder distention prevents uterus contractions
Medical management of PPH
o IV/IM Oxytocin (slow injection followed by continuous infusion)
o IV/IM Ergometrine = stimulates smooth muscle contraction. Not in HTN
o IM Carboprost = stimulates uterine contraction. Caution in asthma
o SL Misoprostol = stimulates uterine contraction
o IV Tranexamic acid = reduces bleeding
Surgical management of PPH
o Intrauterine balloon tamponade = press against bleeding
o B-Lynch suture = suture round uterus to compress it
o Uterine artery ligation = reduce blood flow
o Hysterectomy = last resort to save woman’s life
Risk factors for perineal tears
- Primigravida
- Large babies
- Precipitant labour
- Shoulder dystocia
- Forceps delivery
Classification of perineal tears
- First degree
o Superficial damage with no muscle involvement
o Do no require any repair - Second degree
o Injury to perineal muscle, but not involving anal sphincter
o Require suturing on ward by suitably experienced midwife or clinician - Third degree
o Injury to perineum involving anal sphincter complex
o Require repair in theatre by suitably trained clinician - Fourth degree
o Injury to perineum involving anal sphincter complex and rectal mucosa
o Require repair in theatre by suitably trained clinician
Problems with breastfeeding
- Minor
o Nipple pain = poor latch
o Blocked duct = nipple pain when breastfeeding continue breastfeeding and try breast massage
o Nipple candidiasis Tx = miconazole cream for mother and nystatin suspension for baby - Major
o Mastitis flucloxacillin for 10-14 days and continue breastfeeding
o Engorgement (breast pain, redness) expression of milk
o Raynaud’s disease of nipple (nipple pain, blanching) minimise exposure to cold, heat packs following feed, avoid caffeine, stop smoking
o Poor infant weight gain expert review of feeding, monitor weight - Galactocele (recently stopping breastfeeding
o Usually painless with no local or systemic signs of infection
o No further investigation or management needed
Medications safe in breastfeeding
- Antibiotics = penicillins, cephalosporins, trimethoprim
- Endocrine = glucocorticoids (high doses), levothyroxine
- Epilepsy = sodium valproate, carbamazepine
- Asthma = salbutamol, theophyllines
- Psychiatric drugs = tricyclic antidepressants, antipsychotics (clozapine)
- Hypertension = beta-lockers, hydralazine
- Anticoagulants = warfarin, heparin
- Digoxin
Medications avoided in breastfeeding
- Antibiotics = ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, sulphonamides
- Psychiatric drugs = lithium, benzodiazepines
- Aspirin
- Carbimazole
- Methotrexate
- Sulfonylureas
- Cytotoxic drugs
- Amiodarone
Risk factors for miscarriage
- Maternal age >30-35
- Previous miscarriage
- Obesity
- Chromosomal abnormalities
- Smoking, alcohol and illicit drugs
- High caffeine intake
- Infections and food poisoning
- Uterine or cervical anomalies
- Previous uterine surgery
- Coagulopathies
- Chronic conditions = thyroid problems, severe HTN, uncontrolled DM
- Invasive prenatal tests
- Medicines = ibuprofen, methotrexate, retinoids
Risk factors for recurrent miscarriage
o Antiphospholipid syndrome
o Endocrine disorders (PCOS)
o Uterine abnormality
o Parental chromosomal abnormalities
o Smoking
Presentation of miscarriage
- Vaginal bleeding (clots or products of conception)
- Suprapubic, cramping pain
- Haemodynamic instability = pallor, tachycardia, tachyopnea, hypotension
- Distended, tender abdo
- Products of conception in cervical canal
- Uterine tenderness
Types of miscarriage
- Threatened miscarriage
o Painless vaginal bleeding occurring <24 wks (typically 6-9wks)
o Viable pregnancy detected
o Cervical os closed - Missed miscarriage
o No symptoms of expulsion = pain or bleeding (may be light)
o Pregnancy symptoms disappear
o Cervical os closed
o Gestational sac >25mm and no embryonic/fetal part can be seen = ‘blighted ovum’ or ‘anembryonic pregnancy’ - Inevitable miscarriage
o Heavy bleeding with clots and pain
o Cervical os open - Incomplete miscarriage
o Not all products of conception been expelled
o Pain and vaginal bleeding
o Cervical os open - Complete miscarriage
o All products passed
o Cervical os closed
o Empty uterine cavity - Recurrent miscarriage
o 3 or more consecutive miscarriages <24 wks
o Most common cause antiphospholipid syndrome
o Tx: LMWH and low dose aspirin
Management of miscarriage
- Expectant
o 7-14 days = wait for miscarriage to complete spontaneously
o Not suitable if increased risk of haemorrhage (late 1st trimester, coagulopathies) or evidence of infection - Medical
o Vaginal or oral misoprostol = stimulate expulsion of conception - Surgical
o Manual vacuum aspiration under local anaesthetic
o Anti D to all rhesus negative women
Risk factors for ectopic pregnancy
- Previous ectopic pregnancy
- PID
- Endometriosis
- IUD/IUS
- Progesterone OCP or implant
- Tubal ligation or occlusion
- Pelvic surgery (tubal surgery)
- Assisted reproduction (IVF)
- Smoking
- Multiple sexual partners
- Infertility
- Age <18 at first sexual intercourse
- Ethnicity = black
- Age >35 at first presentation
Common sites of ectopic pregnancy
Most common sites are ampulla and isthmus of fallopian tube
Presentation of ectopic pregnancy
- 6-8 wks of amenorrhoea (missed period)
- Lower abdo/pelvic pain
o Constant and may be unilateral
o Shoulder tip pain (peritoneal bleeding) - Vaginal bleeding
o Less than normal period
o Dark brown colour - Dizziness, fainting or syncope
- Breast tenderness
- Cervical excitation (Chandelier sign)
- Adnexal tenderness
- Haemodynamically unstable (ruptured ectopic)
- Signs of peritonitis
- Fullness in pouch of Douglas
Investigations for ectopic pregnancy
- Haemodynamically stable/unstable
- Pregnancy test = urine BHCG
o Repeat in 48 hrs = if doubling it’s intrauterine, if rising not doubling it’s ectopic, if falls by half or more it’s miscarriage - Transvaginal USS
o If pregnancy not found but BHCG positive (>1500) then pregnancy of unknown location (PUL)
o Free peritoneal fluid = intraperitoneal blood
o Complex/homogenous adnexal mass
o Adnexal gestation sac with/out fetal pole or heart beat
o “Tubal ring” or bagel or blob sign
Conservative management of ectopic pregnancy
o Watchful waiting of stable patient (unlikely to rupture)
o <35mm in size, <1000 BhCG
o Asymptomatic
o No fetal heartbeat
o Serum BHCG monitored every 48 hours to ensure falling by at least 50% of level until <5
Medical management of ectopic pregnancy
o IM methotrexate
o Serum BHCG monitored regularly to ensure BHCG decline by >15% in day 4-5
o Repeat dose if not falling
o For stable patient with well controlled/no pain and BHCG <1500 and unruptured without visible heartbeat
Surgical management of ectopic pregnancy
o Laparoscopic salpingectomy
o Salpingotomy = if fertility compromised or previous surgery
o Patients in pain, serum BHCG >5000, adnexal mass >34mm and fetal heartbeat visible
o Can be ruptured
Legal requirements for termination of pregnancy
- 1990 Human fertilisation and Embryology Act
- Abortion up to 24 wks
o If continuing pregnancy involves greater risk to physical or mental health of woman or existing children of family - Abortion at any time during pregnancy
o Continuing pregnancy is likely to risk life of woman
o Terminating pregnancy will prevent ‘grave permanent injury’ to physical or mental health of woman
o Substantial risk that child would suffer physical or mental abnormalities making it seriously handicapped - Requirements
o 2 registered medical practitioners must sign to agree abortion is indicated
o Must be carried out by registered medical practitioner in NHS hospital or approved premise
Pre-abortion care
- Self-referral or refer from GP, GUM of family planning clinic to abortion services
- Counselling and information to help decision making from trained practitioner
- Informed consent given
Medical abortion
- Usually earlier in pregnancy (<9 wks)
- Mifepristone Anti-progestogen
o Halting pregnancy and relaxing cervix - Misoprostol (1-2 days after) Prostaglandin analogue
o Softens cervix and stimulate uterine contractions
o From 10wks gestation, additional doses every 3 hrs required until expulsion - Anti-D prophylaxis Rhesus negative women with gestational age >10wks
Surgical abortion
- Anaesthetic local / local + sedation / general
- Medications used for cervical priming Misoprostol, Mifepristone, Osmotic dilators
- Surgical options
o Cervical dilatation and suction of contents of uterus (<14wks)
o Cervical dilatation and evacuation using forceps (14-24 wks) - Anti-D prophylaxis for rhesus negative women
Post-abortion care
- Urine pregnancy test performed 3-4 wks after abortion
- Contraception discussed and started where appropriate
- Support and counselling
What is a molar pregnancy
Gestational trophoblastic disease caused by overgrowth of placenta
Types of molar pregnancy
- Complete mole (46 chromosome) Empty ovum was fertilised by 2 sperm, No evidence of fetal tissue
- Partial mole (69 chromosomes) Egg was simultaneously fertilised by 2 sperm, Fetus may be present
- Choriocarcinoma Malignancy of trophoblastic cells of placenta
Risk factors for molar pregnancy
- Extremes of reproductive life (>40 and <15) = complete moles
- 2x higher in East Asia (Korea and Japan)
- Previous molar pregnancy
- Multiple pregnancy
- OCP
Presentation of molar pregnancy
- Irregular first trimester vaginal bleeding
- Uterus large for dates
- Abdominal pain
- Vaginal passage of vesicles containing products of conception
- Hypertension
- Exaggerated pregnancy symptoms Hyperemesis, Hyperthyroidism, Early pre-eclampsia
Investigations of molar pregnancy
- Serum hCG Excessively high with complete moles but may be normal for partial moles
- US
o Complete = snowstorm appearance of mixed echogenicity, large theca lutein cysts
o Partial = viable fetus with early growth restriction or structural abnormalities - Histological examination of products of conception (confirm diagnosis)
Management of molar pregnancy
- Complete
o Surgical evacuation (dilation and suction)
o Oxytocin may be required to reduce risk of haemorrhage - Partial Surgical evacuation preferable unless size of fetal parts requires medical evacuation
- Anti-D prophylaxis post-evacuation if mother is Rhesus negative
- Chemotherapy for persistent gestational trophoblastic disease
o If serum beta-hCG at 56 days raised - Specialist follow up for molar pregnancy
Contraception after molar pregnancy
- Women advised not to conceive until hCG level normal for 6m
o Barrier contraception used
o COCP and HRT safe after hCG levels returned to normal