Observations, interviews, questionnaires Flashcards
What are the three things involved with observations?
- Going into “the field”
(restaurant, hospital, street) - Studying behaviour
(watching what worker, bystanders and consumers do) - Describing, analysing, and interpreting what you have seen
(People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviours or other items of interest can be noted, recorded, analysed, and interpreted.)
What are the advantages of observation?
- It allows the researcher to gather behavioural data without asking questions
- The data obtained through observations of events as they normally occur are generally more reliable and free from respondent bias
What are the disadvantages of observation?
- Only actions and behaviour can be observed, opinions and attitudes remain hidden
- Observer bias: (also called experimenter bias or research bias) is the tendency to see what we expect to see, or what we want to see. When a researcher studies a certain group, they usually come to an experiment with prior knowledge and subjective feeling about the group being studied
- Ethics: do you need consent to watch people’s behaviour? In what places and circumstances? Think of camera’s, private activities, in buildings versus outside, etc.
- Time consuming
What different types of observation do we distinguish?
• Controlled vs Uncontrolled:
this refers to whether the surrounding in which the observation takes place is altered for the sake of the observation
Ex: Uncontrolled (= observing the natural setting)
• Participant vs Non-participant:
this refers to whether the observer interacts in the observation
Ex: Participant (= researcher is involved)
• Structured vs Unstructured:
this refers to whether the criteria that are noted in the observation are predetermined
Ex: Structured (= predetermined criteria, e.g. by means of a questionnaire)
Ex: Concealed (= hidden, e.g. by camera’s)
• Concealed vs Unconcealed:
this refers to whether the participant know they are being studied
The questions with observations always remains: “To what extent should you as a researcher participate?”
It depends on factors such as?
- research question
- ethical consideration
- methodological aspects
- preference of the researcher
- people to be studied
What different types of participation are there?
• Complete participation:
the researcher lives/works with the subjects under study and may conceal that he/she is an observer
• Moderate participation:
the researcher observes the scene under study, maintaining a certain distance from it and never intervening + the role is one of a passive witness or bystander
(Ex. shadowing)
• Active participation:
the researcher does not conceal that he/she is an observer but explains the fact that he/she is an observer to the social group under study right from the start; he/she engages in the activities under study
When you conduct an observation you have to/need?
• Obtain permission.
Getting into the location of whatever aspect of the human experience you wish to study. This means going to where the action is – people’s communities, homes, workplaces, recreational sites, places of commercial interaction, sacred sites, and the like.
• Find ‘sponsor’.
You are responsible for securing a sponsor that will allow you to observe/show with them.
• Establish rapport.
The point of participation is that you wish to observe and learn about the things people do in the normal course of their lives. That means they have to accept you, to some extent, as someone they can “be themselves” in front of.
Structured observation uses ..?
Coding schemes
What are codings schemes?
When is it used?
What are the advantages?
What does a standard coding scheme include?
Structured observation uses a coding method for data collection. Coding is using previously determined specific behaviours or actions that qualify as manifestations of the behaviour of interest.
Ex: hospitable behaviour
Advantages: • Coding allows for observations to be quantitive • bring focus • objective • easy to use
Standard coding schemes include:
• simple checklist
• sequence record
• sequence record on time scale
What are the three different interview structures that we distinguish?
• Unstructured interviews:
- The interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent.
• Structured interviews
- Conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed
- The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone, or via the computer.
• Semi-structured interviews
- While a structured interview has a rigorous set of questions, which does not allow one to divert, a semi-structured interview is open, allowing new ideas to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says. The interviewer in a semi-structured interview generally has a framework of themes to be explored.
Because of what does bias frequently occur in interviews?
- The researcher phrases the question in a particular way
- The researcher inflects the voice in a particular manner
- The respondent provides an answer that he/she believes is what the researcher would like to hear, even though it is not factual
How can bias be reduced in an interview?
- Choosing the appropriate environment in which the interview is conducted
- Establishing trust with the respondent
- Phrasing questions so that they do no lead the interviewee to respond in a particular manner
- Clarifying issues when the respondent seems confused
- Not coming across as evaluative or judgmental
Not placing special emphasis on specific words
What is bias in an interview?
Bias is an error that creeps into information gathered.
It occurs whenever incorrect information is provided to the researcher by whoever offers the information.
PRE-CONCEIVED JUDGEMENT about an interviewee, conscious or unconscious.
What types of interviews are there?
- Personal (face-to-face) interview
- Telephone interview
- Self-administered interview
- Group interview [focus group, expert panel]
What are the advantages and disadvantages of personal (face-to-face) interviews?
Advantages
- Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
- Can pick up non-verbal cues
- Relatively high response/cooperation
- Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
Disadvantages
- High costs and time sensitive
- Geographical limitations
- Response bias/ Confidentiality difficult to be assured
- Some respondent are unwilling to talk to strangers
- Trained interviewers
