Observations and Measurements Flashcards
What is empiricism? Mark the correct option.
a) The thesis that pure reasoning is more reliable than observations.
b) The thesis that all observations are theory-dependent.
c) The thesis that sensory experience is the ultimate basis for knowledge.
d) The thesis that a statement is meaningless if it cannot be empirically verified.
Answer: c)
What does it mean to say that an observation is theory-dependent? Mark all correct options.
a) It means that the justification and/or interpretation of the observation rests upon an assumption that one or more background theories are true.
b) It means that there is only one theory that can account for the existence of the observational content (that which is observed).
c) It means that, as of yet, the observation has not been made, although it’s predicted by one or several scientific theories that are accepted as truth.
Answer: a)
Why might one, arguably, find logical empiricism to be an unreasonable view about the relationship between observations and theory? Mark all correct options.
a) Indirect observations always require theory. Hence, there cannot be any observational sentences about indirectly observable properties that could act as a foundation for some theory.
b) Logical empiricism rests on the difference between observational sentences and theoretical sentences (theories), but this difference is a chimera. There is no such difference between sentences.
c) Some aided-direct observations heavily rely on theory and are used to observe phenomena that cannot be observed by, and thus compared to, unaided-direct observations. Hence, some aided-direct observations are not acceptable according to logical empiricism, and this is counter-intuitive.
d) Logical empiricism’s idea of deriving theory from observational sentences is ultimately an idea based on the foundationalist view on justification. Hence, it cannot be correct because foundationalism is simply an incorrect view on the nature of justification.
Answer: a), c)
In some cases, scientists choose to rely on indirect observations - even though the target phenomenon is, in principle, directly observable. What might their reasons be for doing so? Mark all correct options.
a) Direct observations are sometimes prone to errors that indirect observations are not prone to.
b) Indirect observations are untouched by philosophical criticism - since they stem from methodological considerations that are widely used in science.
c) Direct observations typically only give qualitative properties.
Answer: a), c)
What is the relationship between indirect observations and operationalizations? Mark all correct options.
a) The terms “indirect observation” and “operationalization” are effectively synonymous.
b) An operationalization is a causal or correlation hypothesis that must be true in order for a particular indirect observation to be accurate and precise.
c) An operationalization is a technically advanced method of indirect observation that is applicable only for testing a very narrow range of scientific hypotheses.
d) An operationalization is an indirect observation which is not theory-dependent.
e) An indirect observation is the act of observing something indirectly. An operationalization is a theoretical construction of an indirect observation (which might be put to work).
Answer: b), e)
General Feedback
The notions of operationalization and indirect observation are obviously connected. However, they are not the same thing. Note that an operationalization is a necessary condition for an indirect observation to take place, but the opposite does not hold - that would have made operationalizations and indirect observations equivalent.
True or false: It is possible that an operationalization might be sufficiently good (given one’s purposes) even though the phenomenon in question might be operationalized in several other ways.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a)
It is indeed possible for an operationalization to be sufficiently good for a particular research purpose, even if there are other valid ways to operationalize the same phenomenon. The choice of operationalization can depend on the specific research question, the available resources, and the goals of the study. Different researchers may use different operationalizations of the same concept based on their research objectives and the context of their study. As long as the chosen operationalization is valid, reliable, and aligns with the research goals, it can be considered sufficiently good for that particular study.
Which of the following are quality criteria for operationalizations? Mark all correct options.
a) The phenomenon of interest must in principle be impossible to observe directly.
b) The hypothesized relationship between the phenomenon of interest and the effect must be sufficiently stable for practical purposes.
c) The effect must be observable with sufficient precision.
d) The hypothesized relationship between the phenomenon of interest and the effect must be valid according to our best knowledge.
e)The phenomenon of interest must be sufficiently well-defined.
f) The hypothesized relationship between the phenomenon of interest and the effect is theory-dependent.
Answer: b), c), d), e)
Assume that you want to measure the price difference between three different types of shoes. This requires a scale that orders your measurement and specifies an equivalent distance for each of the scale’s steps. Given these considerations, the scale that you use is an interval scale.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b)
General Feedback
Although an interval scale possibly could work in this context (if the scale’s zero point represents the cost 0), it is strictly speaking incorrect to say that price is measured on an interval scale. The reason is that if something doesn’t cost anything, then there is no (monetary) price.
Measurement errors come in two types: random and systematic errors. What characterizes a random error? Mark all correct options.
a) Random errors cannot be reduced by repeating measurements and averaging over outcomes.
b) Random errors do not affect the precision of the measurement.
c) Some random errors can be avoided by trying a different operationalization.
d) Given sufficiently many measurements of a quantity and the absence of systematic errors, the average result of those measurements is expected to be precise
Answer: c), d)
General Feedback
When thinking about measurement errors at this theoretical level it helps to apply the concepts and their corresponding properties to simple real-life situation, e.g. an archer shooting arrows at a target. Try to think about what could reasonably be seen as a random error and systematic error, respectively.
What is true regarding systematic error? Mark all correct options.
a) Systematic errors affect the accuracy of a measurement.
b) A series of measurements might be very precise, even though they are affected by systematic error.
c) Systematic errors and random errors cannot occur at the same time.
d) Systematic errors affect the precision of a measurement.
e) Systematic errors might occur due to poor calibration.
Answer: a), b), e)
How is it possible to get some indication of whether a method of measurement is suffering from a systematic error? Mark all correct options.
a) We can test for divergent validity
b) We can test for coherency.
c) We can check whether one can deductively prove that the theory underlying our operationalization is true.
d) We can test for convergent validity.
Answer: a), d)
