Observational methods Flashcards
What are observational methods?
Observing a relatively unconstrained segment of individuals’ freely chosen behaviour within a particular setting
- no request for info (eg. interviews/questionnaires)
- no intervention or manipulation of behaviours observed
Trained individuals record activities, events, or processes as precisely and comprehensively as possible.
In what way does observational carry a wide range of meaning?
Used as a general description - can refer to all non-experimental studies where observation is the main procedure for data gathering in natural situations (observation is the overall design)
What are 5 key distinctions of types of observational research?
- technique v overall design
- controlled v naturalistic
- participant v non-participant
- disclosed v non-disclosed
- structured v unstructured
What is the disctinction between technique v overall design based on?
The centrality of observation in the research design
What factors lead to the distinction of observation as a technique?
- simply the technique to measure the DV
- often used within a traditional experimental design in a lab setting
- may or may not be part of an experiment (can also be used in ethnographic studies)
What is ethnography?
studying people in their own environment to understand their experiences, perspectives and everyday practices - uses different research techniques (eg. observations/field notes/informal conversations/interviews/document analysis/surveys/filming and photography
What factors lead to the distinction of observation as a design?
- Relies primarily on observational records
- Study that is solely observational and does not include any experimentation
What are 3 advantages of observation as an overall design?
- Produces data on real behaviour rather than possibly distorted self-reports
- Can gather data on behaviour not amenable to experimentation (eg. real playground aggression)
- If conducted in field settings, can often gather data on unforced behaviour
What are 3 disadvantages of observation as an overall design?
- People’s behaviour can be affected by awareness of being observed (reactivity effects)
- Can be very time-consuming compared with the experiment or questionnaire study
- May not be possible to identify cause and effect
What is controlled observation?
Observation in a controlled setting, often in a lab or observation room
- artificial, potentially inhibiting atmosphere
- limits external validity: how well the results of the study are expected to apply to other settings
What is naturalistic observation?
Observation of people without intervention in their own environment
- access to genuine behaviour - high level of external validity
What is participant observation?
Observer acts in the observed group
Qualitative approach
What is non-participant observation?
Observation from a distance - no interference with behaviour being observed
Structured and quantitative approach to observation
What is the distinction between participant and non-participant observation based on?
The role the researcher plays within the setting in which the observation is conducted
- Continuum of researcher involvement between being an active participant in observed activities and being completely uninvolved in (even absent from) research setting
What is the distinction between disclosed and undisclosed observation based on?
Whether or not the researcher has disclosed to ppts that they are being observed for research purposes
- Info given can be partial or involve some amount of deception in order to encourage more genuine behaviour
What are the ethical issues of undisclosed (covert) observation?
- Obtaining informed consent from ppts prior to the start of the research
- Giving ppts the option to opt-out of the study
What are the advantages of undisclosed (covert) observation?
- protect researchers from harm
- allows access to sites that otherwise would not have been possible to study
What are reactivity effects?
Tendency to alter behaviour in response to awareness of being observed
How could reactivity effects be reduced and what are the issues with this?
Use hidden secret cameras
- Introduces ethical problems
- Impossible when researcher wants to investigate behaviour within home setting
Become predictable and familiar part of the environment eg. several visits to children in schools without collecting data
What is the distinction between structured and non-structured observation based on?
Note-taking method
What is structured (or systematic) observation?
- relies on representative samples of behaviour
- define behaviours before starting observation
- observed behaviours are coded using pre-established categories
- Typical in quantitative studies: record of specific behaviours that focuses on frequency and/or timing
What is unstructured observation?
- Recording takes place after observation
- No restrictions placed on what observer will note
- Typical in qualitative studies: all aspects of phenomenon that seemed to be relevant are recorded
What are the 4 main features of structured (or systematic) observation?
- defining - behaviour categories to be recorded prior to commencing main observational sessions
- sampling - of behaviour in consistent manner
- training - of observers in use of coding system and to a good level of agreement prior to main data-gathering sessions
- observing - either live or using audio or video recordings
How should behaviour categories be defined?
Should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
Create a coding scheme that all observers/coders use - refer to it when deciding how to categorise a certain behaviour
What are 2 types of observational sampling?
- Event sampling - record previously defined behavioural pattern every time it occurs
- Interval time sampling
- divide obs period into intervals
- time intervals usually equal in length
- record presence or absence of a behaviour within or at the end of each interval
- intervals can be consecutive or separated
What is inter-rater reliability?
A measure of reliability (consistency) among coders (observers)
- checks how much coders agree on how behaviour is categorised
How is inter-rater reliability measured?
Cohen’s kappa coefficient (k)
- takes into consideration the probability of chance agreements (can artificially inflate agreement rate if not considered)
K = O - E / N - E
N (number of obs)
O (number of times observers agree)
E (number of agreements by chance)
What value of Cohen’s Kappa is unacceptable?
<.40
What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is fair?
> .40 to <.60
What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is good?
> .60 to <.75
What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is excellent?
> .75
What is observer bias? + 2 types
When obervers’ characteristics influence what and how behaviour is coded
1. Expectancy effect: coder’s expectations influence how they interpret behaviour
2. Information bias: error resulting from systematic selective, incomplete, or inaccurate recall of observed behaviour.
Need to consider potential sources of subjective bias when recruiting coders and creating coding teams
What are the steps for conducting a structured observational study?
- determine variables
- operationalise variables
- develop coding scheme
- generate/gather data
- train observers/coders
- fill out coding sheets
- calculate inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa coefficient)
