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Survey research methods and statistics > Observational methods > Flashcards

Observational methods Flashcards

1
Q

What are observational methods?

A

Observing a relatively unconstrained segment of individuals’ freely chosen behaviour within a particular setting
- no request for info (eg. interviews/questionnaires)
- no intervention or manipulation of behaviours observed
Trained individuals record activities, events, or processes as precisely and comprehensively as possible.

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2
Q

In what way does observational carry a wide range of meaning?

A

Used as a general description - can refer to all non-experimental studies where observation is the main procedure for data gathering in natural situations (observation is the overall design)

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3
Q

What are 5 key distinctions of types of observational research?

A
  • technique v overall design
  • controlled v naturalistic
  • participant v non-participant
  • disclosed v non-disclosed
  • structured v unstructured
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4
Q

What is the disctinction between technique v overall design based on?

A

The centrality of observation in the research design

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5
Q

What factors lead to the distinction of observation as a technique?

A
  • simply the technique to measure the DV
  • often used within a traditional experimental design in a lab setting
  • may or may not be part of an experiment (can also be used in ethnographic studies)
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6
Q

What is ethnography?

A

studying people in their own environment to understand their experiences, perspectives and everyday practices - uses different research techniques (eg. observations/field notes/informal conversations/interviews/document analysis/surveys/filming and photography

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7
Q

What factors lead to the distinction of observation as a design?

A
  • Relies primarily on observational records
  • Study that is solely observational and does not include any experimentation
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8
Q

What are 3 advantages of observation as an overall design?

A
  • Produces data on real behaviour rather than possibly distorted self-reports
  • Can gather data on behaviour not amenable to experimentation (eg. real playground aggression)
  • If conducted in field settings, can often gather data on unforced behaviour
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9
Q

What are 3 disadvantages of observation as an overall design?

A
  • People’s behaviour can be affected by awareness of being observed (reactivity effects)
  • Can be very time-consuming compared with the experiment or questionnaire study
  • May not be possible to identify cause and effect
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10
Q

What is controlled observation?

A

Observation in a controlled setting, often in a lab or observation room
- artificial, potentially inhibiting atmosphere
- limits external validity: how well the results of the study are expected to apply to other settings

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11
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A

Observation of people without intervention in their own environment
- access to genuine behaviour - high level of external validity

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12
Q

What is participant observation?

A

Observer acts in the observed group
Qualitative approach

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13
Q

What is non-participant observation?

A

Observation from a distance - no interference with behaviour being observed
Structured and quantitative approach to observation

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14
Q

What is the distinction between participant and non-participant observation based on?

A

The role the researcher plays within the setting in which the observation is conducted
- Continuum of researcher involvement between being an active participant in observed activities and being completely uninvolved in (even absent from) research setting

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15
Q

What is the distinction between disclosed and undisclosed observation based on?

A

Whether or not the researcher has disclosed to ppts that they are being observed for research purposes
- Info given can be partial or involve some amount of deception in order to encourage more genuine behaviour

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16
Q

What are the ethical issues of undisclosed (covert) observation?

A
  • Obtaining informed consent from ppts prior to the start of the research
  • Giving ppts the option to opt-out of the study
17
Q

What are the advantages of undisclosed (covert) observation?

A
  • protect researchers from harm
  • allows access to sites that otherwise would not have been possible to study
18
Q

What are reactivity effects?

A

Tendency to alter behaviour in response to awareness of being observed

19
Q

How could reactivity effects be reduced and what are the issues with this?

A

Use hidden secret cameras
- Introduces ethical problems
- Impossible when researcher wants to investigate behaviour within home setting
Become predictable and familiar part of the environment eg. several visits to children in schools without collecting data

20
Q

What is the distinction between structured and non-structured observation based on?

A

Note-taking method

21
Q

What is structured (or systematic) observation?

A
  • relies on representative samples of behaviour
  • define behaviours before starting observation
  • observed behaviours are coded using pre-established categories
  • Typical in quantitative studies: record of specific behaviours that focuses on frequency and/or timing
22
Q

What is unstructured observation?

A
  • Recording takes place after observation
  • No restrictions placed on what observer will note
  • Typical in qualitative studies: all aspects of phenomenon that seemed to be relevant are recorded
23
Q

What are the 4 main features of structured (or systematic) observation?

A
  1. defining - behaviour categories to be recorded prior to commencing main observational sessions
  2. sampling - of behaviour in consistent manner
  3. training - of observers in use of coding system and to a good level of agreement prior to main data-gathering sessions
  4. observing - either live or using audio or video recordings
24
Q

How should behaviour categories be defined?

A

Should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
Create a coding scheme that all observers/coders use - refer to it when deciding how to categorise a certain behaviour

25
Q

What are 2 types of observational sampling?

A
  1. Event sampling - record previously defined behavioural pattern every time it occurs
  2. Interval time sampling
    - divide obs period into intervals
    - time intervals usually equal in length
    - record presence or absence of a behaviour within or at the end of each interval
    - intervals can be consecutive or separated
26
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

A measure of reliability (consistency) among coders (observers)
- checks how much coders agree on how behaviour is categorised

27
Q

How is inter-rater reliability measured?

A

Cohen’s kappa coefficient (k)
- takes into consideration the probability of chance agreements (can artificially inflate agreement rate if not considered)
K = O - E / N - E
N (number of obs)
O (number of times observers agree)
E (number of agreements by chance)

28
Q

What value of Cohen’s Kappa is unacceptable?

A

<.40

29
Q

What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is fair?

A

> .40 to <.60

30
Q

What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is good?

A

> .60 to <.75

31
Q

What value range of Cohen’s Kappa is excellent?

A

> .75

32
Q

What is observer bias? + 2 types

A

When obervers’ characteristics influence what and how behaviour is coded
1. Expectancy effect: coder’s expectations influence how they interpret behaviour
2. Information bias: error resulting from systematic selective, incomplete, or inaccurate recall of observed behaviour.
Need to consider potential sources of subjective bias when recruiting coders and creating coding teams

33
Q

What are the steps for conducting a structured observational study?

A
  1. determine variables
  2. operationalise variables
  3. develop coding scheme
  4. generate/gather data
  5. train observers/coders
  6. fill out coding sheets
  7. calculate inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa coefficient)

Survey research methods and statistics (5 decks)

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