observational learning

Question 1

define social-cognitive approaches to learning 

Answer 1

when individuals process, remember and learn information in social contexts to explain and predict their behaviour and that of others
- This approach to learning is closely linked to the social learning theory, which was first proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura

Question 2

The Bobo doll experiments

Answer 2

• In the 1960s, Bandura’s studies demonstrated that children learn by watching and imitating others, suggesting that learning occurs in social settings.
• His theory evolved into the social-cognitive theory, highlighting that learning involves cognitive processes like concentration, motivation, memory, and decision-making.
• Observational learning, a key aspect of this theory, emerged from Bandura’s work.
• In 1965, Bandura’s experiment with a Bobo doll showed that children who observed an adult being rewarded or receiving no consequences for aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate that behavior than those who saw the model punished.
• He concluded that the consequences observed affected the children’s behavior and that they could learn behaviors through observation, even if they did not immediately imitate them.
• Bandura identified this as observational learning.

Question 3

define learner

Answer 3

the individual who observes, remembers and initiates the actions of the model

Question 4

observational learning

Answer 4

a type of social learning that occurs when a learner observes a model’s actions and their consequences to guide their future actions

Question 5

explain social-cognitive approaches to learning

Answer 5

• Socialcognitive approaches to learning are different to behaviourist approaches to learning.
• While behaviourist approaches to learning emphasise the importance of interacting with the external environment, social-cognitive approaches to learning include the internal cognitive processes that accompany learning.
• Nevertheless, socialcognitive approaches do not replace behaviourist approaches, and neither approach is necessarily the ‘right’ way of learning.
• Instead, they both exist to explain how learning behaviours can occur through different processes.

Question 6

explain observational learning

Answer 6

• Observational learning, also known as social learning, vicarious conditioning, or modeling, involves learning behaviors by observing others and the consequences of those behaviors.
• This type of learning allows individuals to be indirectly conditioned by watching someone else’s conditioning.
• In observational learning, the learner observes a model, who performs the behavior.
• The learner must actively watch and pay attention to the model to imitate the behavior.
• This approach is considered a social-cognitive process, emphasizing the importance of the social context in which learning occurs.
• Observational learning is more efficient than classical or operant conditioning because it doesn’t require the learner to experience specific consequences directly.
• Instead, individuals learn from the experiences of those around them.

Question 7

Stages of observational learning

Answer 7

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation
5. Reinforcement

Question 8

define attention

Answer 8

the first step in observational learning, when the learner actively watches the model’s behaviour and the consequences

Question 9

explain attention

Answer 9

• If the individual does not actively concentrate on the behaviour the model is displaying, then it is unlikely that they will retain this information.
• Bandura identified that there are factors that may influence whether learners pay attention to models.

Question 10

example of attention

Answer 10

• For example, the teenager must be sure to actively watch the gamer’s moves and tricks and how this benefits them in the game.
  The learner is more likely to focus on the model if they are attractive, credible, well respected and/or an authority figure.
• The learner’s attention may be influenced further by their own level of motivation and interest level.
• Generally, the greater the similarities between the model and the learner, the more likely the learner is to pay attention to the model.

Question 11

Bandura proposed that learners are more likely to pay attention to the model when the model is:

Answer 11

• perceived positively
• liked
• of high status (such as a celebrity)
• similar to the learner
• familiar to the learner
• visible and stands out from others
• behaving in a way that the learner believes can be imitated

Question 12

define retention

Answer 12

the second stage in observational learning, when the learner stores (retains) a mental representation of the model’s behaviour (retain it in their long-term memory) for future use.

Question 13

example of retention

Answer 13

For example, the teenager must use their cognitive skills to store and retain a memory of the move or trick and how it benefited the model in the game.

Question 14

explain retention

Answer 14

• The more meaningful the learner’s memory is, the more accurately the learner will be able to replicate the model’s behaviour later.
• If the individual has met this stage this means that the information they have paid attention to is stored in their memory
• This information can then be accessed later on when the individual goes to perform the behaviour

Question 15

define reproduction

Answer 15

the third stage in observational learning, when the learner’s physical and mental capabilities enable them to perform the model’s behaviour

Question 16

explain reproduction

Answer 16

• Although an individual may have paid attention to the model and retained the information, if they do not have the physical or mental ability to successfully replicate the behaviour, then they will be unable to reproduce the behaviour
• Often, reproduction is the stage that many people do not achieve.
• This is because it tends to be easier for individuals to attend to and retain information, and have motivation than it is to gain physical and/or mental abilities.
• This is because people lack control over their physical and mental capabilities, which can make it more challenging to complete this stage.

Question 17

example of reproduction

Answer 17

• For example, an individual with a broken leg may meet all stages of observational learning for playing netball but cannot meet reproduction, regardless of their effort in other stages.
• For example, the teenager must have the physical and mental capabilities to reproduce the behaviour of the online gamer, such as being able to use their hands in a similar way to the online gamer in order to reproduce the skills with the controller.
• The behaviour must be within the learner’s competency levels.

Question 18

define motivation

Answer 18

in observational learning, the learner’s desire to perform the model’s behaviour influences whether they will perform it or not.

Question 19

explain motivation

Answer 19

• In other words, they have to want to do it in order to gain something, achieve a goal or receive a reinforcer.
• Motivation is a cognitive process in which individuals must desire to perform the behaviour they are observing after they have observed it.

This motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
- Intrinsic motivations occur from within the individual, such as the desire to perform well on an exam
- Extrinsic motivations occur from factors that are external to the individual, such as the desire to receive praise from your teacher for doing well on an exam.

Question 20

example of motivation

Answer 20

For example, the teenager must want to perform the tip or trick in order to get further in the game or collect more points.

Question 21

define reinforcement

Answer 21

the fifth stage of observational learning in which the individual receives a positive consequence for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future

Question 22

example of reinforcement

Answer 22

For example, the teenager will be more likely to reproduce the behaviour of the online gamer, the model, in the future if there is a positive outcome, such as feeling proud, being able to join a desirable online gaming group, or avoiding being removed from an online gaming group.

Question 23

explain reinforcement

Answer 23

The expectation of reinforcement or punishment influences the cognitive process of the learner.

Question 24

different types of reinforcement

Answer 24

• Self-reinforcement: the behaviour is reinforced through factors internal to the individual, such as feeling proud of themselves
• External reinforcement: the behaviour is reinforced by factors external to the individual, such as receiving an award
• Vicarious reinforcement: the behaviour is reinforced by observing the reinforcement of another person performing the same behaviour. This can enhance the individual’s motivation and make them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future, despite not being directly reinforced themselves.

Question 25

deeper explanation of observational learning

Answer 25

• The model performs the behaviour prior to the stages of observational learning while the learner has to progress through the first four stages before they perform the behaviour
• It is important to note that the individual does not perform the behaviour until they progress through the stages of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
• Reinforcement is the only stage that occurs after the behaviour is performed.
  when the model performs the behaviour and when the learner performs the behaviour during the stages of observational learning