OB - Part 2 Flashcards
Expectancy theory
Concerned with how employees make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of work
Asks two equations:
- Does individual believe his inputs will result in a given level of performance
- Does individual believe that performing at chosen level will lead to desired outcomes
Motivation requires “yes” to both questions
Need theory
Staff will be motivated to satisfy needs
Two motivation theorists
Maslow hierarchy
Alderfer ERG theory
Motivation vs performance
Performance is the end result of work and motivation may be a factor to performance
Theories of work motivation
Need theory
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Org. Justice theory
3 elements of motivation
Direction of behavior
Level of effort
Level of persistence
Direction of behavior
Which behaviors a person choose to perform
Level of effort
How hard do they work to perform chosen behavior
Level of persistence
When faced with obstacles, how hard do they keep trying
What is motivation equation
Inputs —- performance —- outputs
Maslow’s hierarchy
Physiological Safety Belonging Esteem Self-actualization
Adlerfer’s ERG theory
Existence needs
Relatedness needs
Growth needs
Valence
How desirable is a particular outcome? (Part of expectancy theory)
Instrumentality (expectancy theory)
Connection between performance and outcomes)
Perception about the extent to which a performance will lead to attainment of particular outcome
High Instrumentalities =
High motivation
3 components of expectancy theory
- Valences (desirability of outcome)
- Instrumentality (correlation between performance and outcomes) -1 to +1
- Expectancy - correlation between effort and performance 0 to 1
According to expectancy theory, In order for employee to be motivated, the following must occur
High Valence - they want outcome
High instrumentality - they must believe that have to perform at high levels in order to achieve outcome
High expectancy - they must believe they are capable of the high level of performance that is required
Effort —- performance —– outcomes (as it related to expectancy theory)
- Effort must produce high performance
- Performance must produce outcomes
- Outcomes must be desirable
Equity theory ( J. Stacy Adams)
Perceived correction between outcomes and her inputs
This is not actual, objective correlation, but perceived correlation compared to another person
Referent (equity theory)
Person being compared to
Outcome/income ration
What someone gets compared to what they give
Two types of inequity
Overpayment
Underpayment
How to restore equity
- Change inputs or outcomes
- Change referent’s inputs or outcomes
- Change perceptions of inputs and outcomes
- Change Referent
- Chanfe jobs
Org. Justice theory
Perception of overall fairness in organization (are assessments of input/outcomes fair?
4 types of org. Justice
- Distributive justice
- Procedural justice
- Interpersonal justice
- Informational justice
Distributive justice (equity theory)
Perception of equitable distribution of outcomes
Procedural justice
Perceived fairness of procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes
How performance levels are evaluated
How grievances are handled
How outcomes are distributed
Interpersonal justice
Perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment staff receives from distributors of outcomes
Informational justice
Perceived justice on how decisions are made, how decisions are made etc.
Frederick Taylor approach to job design
Scientific management
Job design - early approaches
What tasks each role performs
- Scientific mgt.
- Job enlargement and enrichment
Scientific mgt
Principles and practices designed to increase performance of staff by stressing job simplification and specialization
Job simplification
Job specialization
Time and motion studies
Job simplification
Breaking up work to smallest identifiable tasks
Job specialization
Assignment for staff to perform small, simple tasks
Job design - job characteristics model
- Core job dimensions
- Motivating potential score
- Critical psychological states
- Work and personal outcomes
- Individual differences in response to job design
- Research evidence
Job design - social information process
Salancik & Pfeffer
The way people respond to their jobs is influenced by social information and by own past behaviors
Role of social environment
Role of past behaviors
Job enlargement
Increasing the number of tasks an employee performs but keeping task at same level of difficulty and responsibility (horizontal job loading)
Job enrichment
Increasing employees responsibility and control over his work (vertical job loading) - goal of increasing intrinsic motivation
Examples - allow employees to plan work schedules Determine how job should be performed Check their own work Learn new skills
Job characteristics model (purpose) - hackman & oldman
Job design that aims to identify characteristics that make jobs intrinsically motivating
Job crafting
When staff can change their job as needed
Core job dimensions - Job Characteristics model
Skill variety - use different skills
Task identity - doing job from beginning to end
Task significance - does task impact lives or work of others
Autonomy - degree of freedom
Feedback - clear feedback about performance etc.
Motivation potential score measures what core job characteristics
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Equal to average of all three
Job diagnostic survey - Job Characteristics model
Hackman and Oldman (1970)
Produces motivational potential score (mps)
Critical psychological states - job characteristics model
- Experience meaningfulness of work - how important does job feel
- Experienced responsibility for outcomes - how personally responsible for work does staff feel?
- Knowledge of results - do staff know they are performing well on a continuous basis.
Personal & work outcomes - job characteristics model
High intrinsic motivation
High job performance
High job satisfaction
Low absenteeism and turnover
Social identity theory
How individuals use the groups and org. they are members of to define themselves
three key mediating factors that determined what the effects of the core job dimensions were likely to be on an employee. - job characteristics model
- Growth need - how much job should contribute to personal growth
- Knowledge and skills - have skills necessary to perform at level expected
- Satisfaction with work context - how happy are they with extrinsic outcomes
Combine tasks so that a worker is responsible for doing a piece of work from start to finish. - what core job dimension
Skill variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Group tasks into natural work units so that workers are responsible for performing an entire set of important organizational activities rather than just part of them. - what core job dimension
Task Identity
Task Significance
Allow workers to interact with customers or clients, and make workers responsible for managing these relationships and satisfying customers. - what core dimensions
Skill
Autonomy
Feedback
Vertically load jobs so that workers have more control over their work activities and higher levels of responsibility. - what core dimension
Autonomy
Open feedback channels so that workers know how they are performing their jobs - what core dimension
Feedback
three aspects of the Job Characteristics model
core job dimensions
critical psychological states
work and personal outcomes
Hertzberg Motivation-hygiene theory of job satisfaction
effects of certain Job Facets on job satisfaction: motivation needs & hygiene needs
can be satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time
Motivation needs: Hertzberg
refer to the actual work, how challenging, interesting, autonomy, responsibility, etc.
Hygiene needs: Hertzberg
physical and psychological context in which work is performed
Hertzberg: motivation needs: (work content) intrinsic
when they are met, employees will be satisfied
Discrepancy Model of Job Satisfaction
employees compare their job to their ideal job
Hertzberg: hygiene needs (work context)
when they are met, employees will not be dissatisfied
Steady State Model
employees have a steady state of satisfaction which may adjust situationally, changes in work should be evaluated for whether they will have a temporary or long lasting impact on job satisfaction - move the “steady” bar up permanently or just a spike that will fall back to equilibrium
Mobley’s Model of Turnover process
job dissatisfaction experience — thinking of quitting — cost/benefit analysis — intention to search for alternatives —search for alternatives — evaluation of alternatives — comparison of alternatives to present job — intentions to quit/stay —- quit/stay
Organization Citizenship behavior (OCB)
behavior above and beyond the call of duty - job satisfaction may highly impact org. citizenship
Potential consequences of job satisfaction
Absenteeism (missing work)
Turnover (withdrawal from org)
Org. Citizenship (willingness to go above & beyond)
Employee well-being (happy health & prosperous)
Job Satisfaction
Feelings and beliefs employees have about specific jobs
Organizational Commitment
Feelings and beliefs employees have about the org. as a whole
Affective Commitment
when employees are happy to be members of the org. - highly related to org. citizenship although not necessarily job performance. high affective commitment means lower turnover
Continuance Commitment
commitment that exists when employees don’t necessarily stay because they want to be there, but because it is too costly to leave (golden handcuffs) etc.
values (personal convictions about what one should strive for in life and how one should behave)
high determinant of on the job behavior
two kinds of work values that impact org. behavior
work values
ethical values
work attitudes
more specific and less long lasting than values - collection of feelings, beliefs and thoughts that people have about how they to behave
work moods and emotions
more transitory than values and attitudes - peoples feelings at the time they actually perform their job
two broad types of work values: personal convictions about what outcomes they should expect from work and how they should behave
intrinsic - values related to the work itself (doing something interesting and challenging or have a sense of accomplishment
extrinsic - values related to the consequences of work, such as family security or status in the community
3 types of ethical values - convictions about what is right and wrong
Utilitarian - decisions should produce greatest good for greatest amount of people
Moral Rights - decisions should protect the fundamental rights and privileges of the people affected
Justice - decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefit and harm among those affected in a fair, equitable or impartial manner.
Two important work attitudes:
Job Satisfaction - collection of feelings and beliefs that a people have about their current job
Organizational Commitment - collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their organization as a whole
Three components of work attitude
Affective (how they feel about their job)
Cognitive (what they believe about their job)
Behavioral (what they think about how to behave at work)
Emotional labor
when a employee must control their expression of moods and emotions on the job
Job Satisfaction is determined by (attitude in org behavior)
personality
values
work situation
social influence
3 models that are useful for understand the job satisfaction attitude
Facet
Discrepancy
Steady-state
Salancik and Pfeffer’s Social Information Processing model two important factors that shape, or influence, an employee’s perceptions of the characteristics of his or her job.
1) the perceptions and attitudes of other employees regarding what aspects of the job one should pay attention to, and how job characteristics should be evaluated;
2) the employee’s own past behavior and experience.
our evaluation is not just objective but based on perceptions of the situation as well.
5 Job Design Approaches
Scientific Mgt. -
Work Simplification,
Specialization,
Time and motion studies, Piece-rate-pay
Job Enlargement -
horizontal job loading (increase number of tasks without
increasing difficulty or responsibility)
Job Enrichment -
vertical job loading (increasing responsibility)
Job Characteristics Model -
Core job dimensions:
Critical psychological states:
Work and personal outcomes:
Social Informational Processing - social environment,
past behaviors
self-serving attribution - Possible result of Social Information Processing Model (Salancik)
internalize the causes of success and externalize the causes of failure - mirror theory (good to great)
cognitive dissonance and attribution theory as it relates to self-serving attribution and Social Information Processing Model
They help us understand why people often differ so greatly in how they evaluate the same situation. Specifically, the more we freely committed ourselves to a course of action the more likely we will be to “perceive” the job in more favorable terms. In contrast, the less committed we are to the new job, or less personally responsible we feel for making the actual career choice the less inclined we will be to perceive the job favorably when it actually is not.
How to design jobs that stimulated intrinsic motivation to perform at higher levels
build more ‘motivator’ characteristics into employees’ jobs.
Connection between motivation equation and job design and goal setting:
- job design and goal setting are tools that an organization can use to influence in a positive way many types of employee “inputs” into the work situation.
- , some form of performance evaluation must then follow to assure that there is employee accountability, and some basis for making soundly-based decisions about the equitable allocation of rewards.
- pay and other career opportunities are two general types of outcome that recipients can assess in terms of their valence, value or attractiveness When considered along with an assessment of their Effort-Performance expectancies, and Performance-Outcome instrumentalities, employees will make decisions regarding the motivation to behave in organizationally desirable ways.
Effort-Performance expectancies
expectancy theory
Performance-Outcome instrumentalities
expectancy theory
why people form groups
task related
economic/political
social psychological
what is important about groups
1) groups are fundamental to organizational life
2) people form and participate in them for many reason, some of which go well beyond the fact that we formally are assigned to groups and teams on the job;
3) groups will form in organizations whether we want them
4) groups are often the vehicles by which both organizations and individuals achieve their goals.
How groups help organizations
- make more resources available to organizations
- can facilitate creativity and innovation
- satisfaction and quality of work life
Types of Groups
Formal & Informal
Formal Groups
command, task and teams
informal groups
friendships, interest
Temporary vs. permanent groups
task force, project based groups
Command Group:
A collection of subordinates who report to a common superior. This is most commonly referred to as a department or division. (subunit)
Task Force:
A collection of people who are brought together to accomplish a specific goal, after which, the group disbands.
Team:
A formal work group in which there is a high level of interaction among group members who work intensely together to achieve a common goal.
Self-managed Work Team:
A team that is held responsible for all aspects of its operation, including tasks that are usually considered managerial in nature.
Four types of groups
Command, Task force, Team, Self-managed teams
The Tuckman model of group development (5 stages)
forming,
storming,
norming
performing adjourning
relationship-oriented group leadership.
leaders that understand the emotional element of groups
shared informal responsibility
sharing leadership roles in teams
