NVC

Question 1

What you need to know

Answer 1

Distinctions between NVC and VC, including paralinguistics (the vocal features that accompany speach, including tone of voice, emphasis and intonation).

Types of NVC including:

functions of eye contact (Argyle), regulating the flow of information in conversation, providing feedback and expressing emotions, including pupil dilation

Facial expression; categories of facial expression (surprise, happiness, fear, anger, sadness, interest, disgust). Facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain Sackheim

body language; posture (including postural echo, open and closed postures), gestures and touch

Description and evaluation of studies of NVC and VC, for example the work of Argyle et al

Personal space: factors which affect personal space, including cultural norms, sex differences, individual differences and status

Description and evaluation of studies of factors which affect personal space.

Contemporary practical implications of studies of non-verbal communication and their benefits and drawbacks

Question 2

1.

What is communication?

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 2

Communication is passing information from one person to another/ others. There are endless ways including technology. In psychology we are interested in the differences between Verbal and non verbal communication.

Question 3

4.

Describe Verbal communication

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 3

Communication that requires the use of words and vocal sounds is called verbal communication

For example talking to someone, or even just grunting!

This includes PARALINGUISTICS

Question 4

verbal communication

5.

What are Paralinguistics?

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 4

Paralinguistics are the vocal features that accompany speech:-

1. Tone of voice (the way words are spoken to convey emotion)
2. Emphasis (stressing some words more than others)
3. Intonation (inflection of the voice when speaking)

The use of paralinguistics may change the meaning of words.

Question 5

paralinguistics

6.

ARGYLE, ALKEMA AND GILMOUR (1971)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 5

AIM: To see if tone of voice has any effect when interpreting a verbal message.

METHOD: Different groups of participants listened to either friendly or hostile messages spoken in either friendly or hostile tones of voice. Therefore some participants heard a hostile message spoken in a friendly tone of voice and others head a friendly message spoken in a hostile tone of voice.

RESULTS: When participants were asked to interpret the message, it was found that tone of voice had about five times the effect of the verbal message itself. CONCLUSION: tone of voice is extremely important in how people interpret verbal messages.

Question 6

paralinguistics

8.

Evaluation

ARGYLE, ALKEMA AND GILMOUR (1971)

and

Davitz and Davitz

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 6

[Strength] A useful practical implication of the studies on paralinguistics is that it sheds light on why some people might have problems getting verbal information across to other people if their words seem to contradict the tone of voice they are using. It can suggest that they’re not being truthful. [Criticism] These studies were carried out in artificial conditions where participants were asked to concentrate on different aspects of the communication. In real life, people may not focus so much on these details and perhaps would pay more attention to the actual words used.

Question 7

2.

What is the distinction between non-verbal and verbal communication:

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 7

Verbal communication = conveying messages using words or vocal sounds.

Speaking directly using sentences, etc.

Non Verbal communication = A process of communication in which we send and receive messages without the use of words or vocal sounds.

Question 8

3.

Percentages of verbal and NVC.

[Just for background Allie}

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 8

Psychologists have suggested that

Only 7% of the total impact of a message is verbal (the words used)

38% is vocal (tone of voice)

55% is non-verbal (body language)

[Albert Mehrabian, 1971]

Question 9

9.

What is Non-verbal Communication

and

What are the TYPES of Non-verbal communication

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 9

When we send and receive messages (communicate) without the use of words or vocal sounds it’s called Non-verbal communication. This includes the following

Types of non-verbal communication:

1. Eye Contact
2. Facial expressions
3. Body language: posture (including postural echo, open and closed postures), gestures (using our hands) and touch

Question 10

10.

The functions of NVC (Argyle)

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 10

Michael Argyle (1988)

concluded that there are 5 functions of non-verbal bodily behaviour in human communication:

1. To express emotions

2. Express interpersonal attitudes

3. To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners

4. Presentation of one’s personality

5. Rituals (greetings)

Question 11

12.

What is EYE CONTACT?

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 11

Eye contact is when two people are looking at each other’s eyes at the same time.

Question 12

14.

Functions of eye contact Argyle 1975

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 12

Eye movements in conversation usually happen automatically.

Eye contact can indicate whether a person is interested, paying attention or involved in a conversation. Even subtle cues like the amount of pupil dilation can be used to accurately assess person’s mood.

Argyle said Eye Contact has 3 functions:

1. Regulating the flow of information in conversation
2. Providing feedback and expressing emotions
3. Pupil dilation

[Nb pupil dilation is when the pupils in the eyes expand to look large.]

Question 13

15.

Cultural differences in eye contact

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 13

Different cultures have different ‘rules’ about eye contact. In the UK it is good manners to look at a person’s eyes when they are talking, while in Japan people consider direct and constant eye contact a rude gesture/ a challenge.

Question 14

eye contact

18.

ARGYLE (1968)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 14

ARGYLE (1968)

AIM: To see how interrupting eye contact affects conversation.

METHOD: pairs of participants were observed having conversations. In half the conversations, one of the participants wore dark glasses so that the other could not receive eye contact.

RESULTS: when one of the participants wore dark glasses, there were more pauses and interruptions that when dark glasses were not worn.

CONCLUSION: Eye contact is important in ensuring the smooth flow of conversation.

Question 15

eye contact

19.

HESS (1963)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 15

HESS (1963)

AIM: To see the effect of pupil dilation on emotion METHOD: participants were shown two nearly identical pictures of the same girls and asked which picture was more attractive. The only difference between the two pictures was that, in one of them, the girls’ pupils were dilated, and in the other picture they were not. RESULTS: The majority of participants said that the picture of the girls with dilated pupils was more attractive. Strangely though, they could not say why they thought that.

CONCLUSION: Pupil dilation has an unconscious but powerful effect on emotion.

Question 16

20.

Evaluation of eye contact studies

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 16

[Criticism] Asking people to get acquainted and then observing them is a very artificial situation and participants may have behaved in different ways to normal.

[Strength] Such studies do help us to understand the importance of eye contact in smooth interactions and conversations and has practical implications, for example in that it gives us insight into why people without good eye contact may struggle socially.

Question 17

21.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS of eye contact studies

[PINK CARD]

Answer 17

Studies of eye movements in conversation help us to understand why we might feel uncomfortable talking to someone who either constantly looks at us or not at all. You are never quite sure if it’s your turn to talk or not

The ‘rules’ of eye contact in our culture help regulate succesful conversations and interactions, so people who struggle with Eye contact, such as people with autism are at a disadvantage, and perhaps need to learn these rules systematically.

Studies of pupil dilations, such as Hess’ shine some light on why the use of eye makeup is so popular; it has the effect of making the eyes look darker and larger, which seems to be an unconscious signal for attraction.

.We have no control over pupil dilation. It is biologically programmed into us. A drawback of this could be that we cannot hide our emotions if we are attracted to someone (unless we wear dark glasses!)

Question 18

Facial expressions

What are Facial Expressions

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 18

Facial expressions are like a map that give away the thoughts and feelings that are crossing your mind but might not be being expressed verbally.

Question 19

Facial expressions

Paul Ekman (1972)

Six universal facial expressions

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 19

Paul Ekman suggested that there are six universal facial expressions: Anyone regardless of where they came from in the world would recognise them. These different categories of facial expression are:

• happiness

universally and easily recognised. When we are happy in may be interpreted as enjoyment, pleasure or friendliness. People can most easily pick out a happy face from a picture Sadness – the opposite of happiness.

• sadness

Sadness may convey messages related to loss , pain, discomfort, helplessness.

• anger

this may be seen in daily stress like frustration. Its expression conveys messages about hostility and potential attack.

• fear

this can convey messages about a possible threat or danger.

• surprise

a brief emotional state that is the result of experiencing an unexpected, relevant event. Surprise can be neutral, pleasant or unpleasant.

• disgust

this occurs as a reaction to objects that are revolting, for example the smell or rotting fish, or if somebody had done something offensive/ sickening.

Question 20

facial expressions

26.

Osgood (1966)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 20

Osgood (1966)

Found that the SEVEN facial expressions: are recognised in virtually all societies. This probably means they are inherited.

1. happy
2. surprised
3. angry
4. afraid
5. sad
6. disgusted
7. interested

Add interest to your list **

Question 21

facial expressions

Gender differences

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 21

Research has shown that women’s facial expressions are more expressive than men’s.

Women are also more accurate than men in correctly interpreting the facial expressions of others.

Question 22

28.

Facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 22

We humans have more muscles for moving our faces than any other animal. Our facial expressions can change very rapidly. Some micro expressions last for 0.2 of a second.

All of this is controlled by 2 hemispheres of the brain. Research has shown that our emotions are contained in the RIGHT hemispheres of our brains. E.g. Sackheim study makes sense as the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa. Therefore we would expect emotion to show more on the left.

Question 23

facial expressions

29.

H. Sackheim (1978)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 23

H. Sackheim (1978)

AIM: To look at the relationship between facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain.

METHOD: pictures of people’s faces posing six distinct emotions (plus a neutral expression) were cut down the middle. New pictures were created with each half face and its mirror image. Then each pair of new faces was shown to participants. They were asked which picture they liked better.

RESULTS: the majority of participants said they preferred the picture of the left half of the face and its reflection. When asked why they said the person looked ‘warmer.’

CONCLUSION: The expression displayed on the left side of the face (controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain) seems to express emotion much more than the right side. The findings indicate hemispheric asymmetry in the control over emotional expression in the face.

Question 24

30.

Evaluation of Facial expression studies

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 24

Evaluation of Facial expression studies

[Criticisms] Studies that involve still pictures are artificial. We don’t usually stare at still pictures to judge people’s emotions. Facial expression in the real world change constantly when people are together. Also we don’t look at facial expression in isolation when we are with other people. Other aspects of their NV behaviour can give more accurate cues to what they may be thinking and felling, such as their posture or even style of dress. [Strengths] These studies have given us some useful insights into the role of facial experssions in our interactions though and shows how important it is in succesful interaction.

Question 25

facial expressions

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS into studies of facial expressions

[PINK CARD]

Answer 25

Practical implications

Studies into facial expressions explains some of the behaviours that most people seem to have, for example favouring certain picture profiles of ourselves rather than others: most people prefer to show the ‘warm’[left] side.

Research into gender differences (ie that women show and read emotion in facial expressions more than men) might be a contributing factor into why women are often stereotyped as emotional.

If facial expression is inherited, this means that it happens instinctively and it is more likely to be truthful. Therefore if someone is saying happy things with a sad facial expression, the chances are that person is feeling sad. It is easy to lie with words, but less easy with facial expression. However people can learn how to repliicate these expressions pretty well (such as actors and sales people). Other studies indicate that while the six core expressions seem to be universal there are many other facial expressions that are taught and culturally specific.

Question 26

32.

What is Body Language

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 26

Body language

Body language is a general term to describe aspects of non-verbal communication.

Body language includes:

posture (postural echo, open and closed postures)

gestures (using our hands)

touch

Question 27

What is POSTURE?

[BLUE CARD}

Answer 27

Posture is the positioning of the body, often regarded as a non-verbal communication signal.

It’s very important in the way we’re perceived and in how we interact and build relationships. The way people hold themselves can give important information to other people. They can be indicators of how a person is feeling, e.g. tense or relaxed.

Psychologists have found a relationship between posture and status. A high status person is likely to adopt a more relaxed stance, often with hands in pockets whereas a low status person generally has a more rigid posture.

There are different types of posture including:

1. The postural echo
2. Open posture
3. Closed posture

Question 28

34.

POSTURAL ECHO

[BLUE CARD]

Answer 28

Postural echo is when people copy or mirror each others’ posture.

People who are in rapport (getting on well together) tend to adopt each other’s posture when they’re having a conversation. This is called POSTURAL ECHO.

We are likely to demonstrate postural echo among friends. It carries the message ‘I am like you’. Successful sales people, politicians are likely to use this as are people who are flirting with each other.

Question 29

35.

Define Postural Echo

[yellow card]

Answer 29

Postural echo is when people copy or mirror each others’ posture.

People who are in rapport (getting on well together) tend to adopt each other’s posture when they’re having a conversation. This is called POSTURAL ECHO.

Question 30

Postural echo

36.

McGinley (1975)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 30

McGinley (1975)

AIM: To see the effect of postural echo when having a conversation.

METHOD: A confederate of the experimenter approached people in a social setting and had conversations with them. In half of the meetings, the confederate echoed the posture of the person they were talking to. In the other half of the meetings, the confederate did not echo the posture of the other person. Afterwards, the experimenter approached the individuals and asked them what they thought of the confederate.

RESULTS:

When postural echo was used, the people questioned liked the confederate and thought that they got of well together. When postural echo was not used, the confederate was not liked as much and the conversation felt awkward.

CONCLUSION: Postural echo gives an unconscious message of friendliness.

Question 31

38.

Define

CLOSED POSTURE

[YELLOW CARD}

Answer 31

Crossing your arms and legs while you are in conversation is known as closed posture. It includes crossing the legs at either knees or ankles, and hands folded on lap.

Psychologists say that this could indicate rejection or disagreement or defensiveness.

People with open body positions are perceived more positively than those with closed body positions. People with open body postures are also more persuasive than those with closed body positions.

Question 32

39.

Define

Open posture

[YELLOW CARD]

Answer 32

Open posture is having your arms uncrossed (so they are not folded across the body and not crossing the legs).

This may indicate approval or acceptance. Open posture can include any of the following: knees apart, legs stretched out, elbows away from the body, hands not touching and legs uncrossed.

People with open body positions are perceived more positively than those with closed body positions. People with open body postures are also more persuasive than those with closed body positions.

Question 33

Open and closed postures

40.

McGinley, Lefevre and McGinley (1975)

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 33

McGinley, Lefevre and McGinley (1975)

AIM: To see the effect of open and closed posture when having a conversation.

METHOD: A confederate of the experimenter approached individuals in a social setting and had a conversation with them. In half of the conversations the confederate adopted an open posture. In the other half, the confederate adopted a closed posture. Afterwards, the experimenter approached the individuals and asked them what they thought of the confederate.

REULTS: When showing an open posture, the confederate was seen as friendly and attractive. When showing a closed posture, the confederate was seen as unfriendly and less attractive.

CONCLUSION: the posture that someone adopts will make a difference to how much they are liked.

Question 34

Evaluation of studies on posture

[GREEN CARD]

Answer 34

EVALUATION

[Strength] Studies on posture have given us a wealth of information that is applicable to how we interact with each other and how we’re perceived. The knowledge from such studies is drawn on successfully in many professional fields.

[Criticisms] We could question the ethics of using confederates in experiments. The deception used was necessary for the experiments to work in these contexts but isn’t it wrong to deceive people?

We can’t rule out other variables in these experiments. For example there could be other factors at play (aside from open and closed posture/ mirroring and not mirroring) causing the difference in results, such as personality differences – the confederate may have been more appealing to some people than others.

Question 35

Posture

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

[PINK CARD]

Answer 35

Practical implications

These studies highlight how people in the real world may be using this information to their advantage. Knowledge of posture and how posture is perceived can be extremely helpful to professional psychologists such as therapists. How people interact can be expressed in body language as well as verbally. For example therapists might deliberately use postural echo to create therapeutic alliances with their clients. Clients in turn might then open up more in the sessions.

Salespeople and politicians may use open postures in order to make a sale/ convince people. An implication for people who don’t know about body language studies is that they may not be aware how they are being manipulated.

Question 36

What is Touch

[blue card]

Answer 36

Touch is another non-verbal communication signal in which information is conveyed by physical contact between people.

Touches that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slap, “high-five”, shoulder pat, brushing arm, etc. Each of these give off nonverbal messages as to the touching person’s intentions/feelings. They also cause feelings in the receiver, whether positive or negative.

Touch is a very powerful signal that can produce unconscious emotional reactions.

Question 37

Definition of touch

[yellow card]

Answer 37

Definition of Touch

Non-verbal communication signals in which information is conveyed by physical contact between people

(e.g. handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slap, “high-five”, shoulder pat, brushing arm, etc.)

It’s a very powerful signal that can produce unconscious emotional reactions.

Question 38

Touch

Fisher, Rytting and Heslin (1976)

[Green card]

Answer 38

Fisher, Rytting and Heslin (1976)

Aim: To see the effect of touch on people’s attitudes

Method: Female students in a library were handed books by the librarian. The librarian was a confederate of the experimenter. Half of the students were briefly touched on the hand by the librarian when the books were handed to them. The other students were not touched by the librarian.

Results: When questioned later, the students who were touched had a much more positive attitude towards the library and the librarian than those who were not touched. The interesting thing is was that the students were not aware that they had been touched.

Conclusion: Touch will have an unconscious and positive effect on attitudes.

Question 39

touch

Evaluation

Fisher, Rytting and Heslin (1976)

[Green card]

Answer 39

Evaluation

Fisher, Rytting and Heslin (1976)

[Criticism] In the library study, the participants were all female. Therefore we do not know if males would have been affected in the same way. [Strength] As this study took place in a library it was a fairly natural environment for people to interact with the ‘librarian’ as opposed to an artificial lab setting. [Criticism] We could question the ethics of the study because the participants didn’t know until later that they were being used in the experiment.

Question 40

Practical implication of the study on touch

[pink card]

Answer 40

Practical implication of the study on touch

Studies of touch show how attitudes in the real world might be manipulated by people who want to influence and win favour with others. One experiment found that two-thirds of women agreed to dance with a man who touched their arm for a second while asking them for a dance. When the same man did not use touch, his success rate halved. This could explain why more tactile people do better romantically.

Question 41

Gestures

Definition

[yellow card]

Answer 41

Gestures – definition

A gesture is a form of NVC made with the body, hands or face, used instead of, or in combination with, verbal communication. They can be conscious or unconscious.

Question 42

Gestures

[Blue card]

Answer 42

Gestures

A gesture is a form of NVC made with the body, hands or face, used instead of, or in combination with, verbal communication. Gestures can be:-

Deliberate – to emphasise what we are saying or to affect the behaviour of another person

Unconscious – some gestures are unconscious and we may not realise that we are giving away information. (E.g. tapping our fingers impatiently, or raising an eyebrow.)

They can take the form of body, facial or hand gestures.

The gestures we make, communicate additional information to people. They allow individuals to express a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection. Most people use gestures and body language in addition to words when they speak.

Question 43

Body language- gestures

Examples of gestures

[blue card]

Answer 43

Examples of Gestures

Body gestures:

Sitting with legs crossed, foot kicking slightly = Boredom

‘The peacock’ – thrusting your chest up and out and titling your head up. = superiority /domination/smug arrogance = aggression, readiness

shoulder shrug = I don’t know/ I don’t care

Facial gestures:

Smiling = Friendliness; agreement; happiness

Frowning = Unhappiness; annoyance; confusion

Eye rolling = Signals boredom / exasperation ‘(I don’t like this’; ‘I think this is really stupid’).

Head shaking = No; I disagree; it’s not

Nodding (for yes) = In many cultures - gesture of confirmation or agreement.

Hand to cheek = Evaluation, thinking

Touching, slightly rubbing nose = Rejection, doubt, lying

Hand gestures:

Rubbing hands =Anticipation

Tapping or drumming fingers = Impatience

Open palm = Sincerity, openness, innocence

Thumbs up = In the UK all is good; I approve

Fingers crossed = Good luck

Steepling fingers = Authoritative

Question 44

Gestures (Body Language)

Cultural differences

[Background Allie]

[blue card]

Answer 44

Cultural differences

Gestures do not have universal meanings. A gesture that’s considered fine in one country might be a completely different meaning in another country. EG

In the US and in Western Europe it’s very common for people to point with an extended finger but in Asia this is considered very rude.

Likewise the thumbs up sign considered as ‘it’s all going well/I approve’ in Islamic countries is considered really rude.

The dog curl (beckoning someone) that’s fine in Britain or America could get you arrested in the Philippines as it’s considered offensive.

The A Ok sign in the UK, in Latin America and France means ‘your anus’, and in Turkey it means that you’re homosexual.

Even simple gestures like pointing at someone can give offence if it is not done correctly. EG President George Bush really messed up on a visit to Australia. He tried to signal a peace sign by making a V sign at the crowd. Instead though of facing his palm outwards he faced it inwards (telling the crowd, to put it politely, to go screw themselves)!

Question 45

Gestures

Lynne and Mynier (1993)

[Green card]

Answer 45

Lynne and Mynier (1993)

Aim: To see the effect of gestures used by waiters and waitresses on the tipping behaviours of customers in a restaurant

Method: while taking orders from customers waiters and waitresses were instructed to either stand straight upright or squat down near to the customers, allowing eye contact.

Results: when they squatted down larger tips were received than when they stood upright to receive the orders.

Conclusion: the gesture of squatting down near a seated customer to take an order will have a positive effect on tipping behaviour.

Question 46

Gestures

Evaluation

Lynne and Mynier (1993)

[Green card]

Answer 46

Evaluation

Lynne and Mynier (1993)

[Criticism] There may have been other reasons for the differences in tips given. For example the size of the bill usually affects the size of the tip. [Criticism] Whether the customer was served by some of the same or opposite gender might have been another factor.

[Strength] However the study does show how knowledge of the effect of gestures can be used to people’s advantage.

Question 47

Gesture

Practical implications

[pink card]

Answer 47

Practical implications

[gesture]

Some restaurants have waiters/ waitresses who squat down to take an order. Customers probably see this as a friendly gesture, but studies such as the one by Lynne and Mynier suggest that this could be a deliberate policy by restaurants to increase tips for staff.

In TV films of a nodding reporter called a ‘noddie’ are often edited in later. The explanation for this is that we see a nod as a gesture of agreement, i.e. that the reporter is listening very carefully.

Hand gestures: People in positions of high status (like politicians) might use hand gestures to communicate and signal information, but they can get it very wrong (like George Bush in Australia). This sheds light on how important it is for people working internationally to understand gestures.

Question 48

Personal space

[blue card]

Answer 48

The distance that feels comfortable between you and the other person is known as your personal space.

Edward Hall defined personal space as an “emotionally charged bubble of space which surrounds each individual.”

It is an invisible bubble that surrounds us and is carried with us when we move. If anyone enters our bubble they invade our personal space.

After eye contact personal space is perhaps the most important nvc signal that we use.

Question 49

Definition of personal space

[yellow car]

Answer 49

Definition

Personal space is the distance we keep between ourselves and other people in our everyday lives. It is an “emotionally charged bubble of space which surrounds each individual.” (Hall)

Question 50

Hall’s four distances of personal space

Answer 50

Hall’s four distances of personal space

Personal space distance

Intimate distance 0 – 0.5 m

Used for intimate rships. Or briefly in gestures socially (e.g. shaking hands/ hugging)

Personal distance 0.5 – 1.5 m

Used by close friends and acquaintances and allows conversations to take place

Social distance 1.5 – 4 m

For more formal situations, such as people who are acquaintances or in business

Public distance Over 4 m

The distance between one person and a group, e.g. in a lecture or concert

Question 51

Personal space

Felipe and Sommer (1966)

[green card]

Answer 51

Felipe and Sommer (1966)

Aim: To research the effect of invading personal space in a public setting.

Method: People who were sitting by themselves in a library were approached. An ‘invader’ either sat in the next chair and moved it closer to the person; or left a gap of one chair between them.

Results: When the ‘invader’ sat in the next chair and moved it closer, 70 per cent of the participants had left their seats after 30 minutes, whereas only 13 per cent left when the participants allowed a gap of one chair between them. Many participants also changed the angle of their chair, pulled in their elbows and used books or other objects as barriers. People also changed their body position, leaning away from the invader or turning the angle of their body to present more of a barrier.

Conclusion: People feel uncomfortable when their personal space is invaded by a stranger in public spaces, to the point that they will leave their seat.

Question 52

Factors that affect personal space:

[blue card]

Answer 52

Factors that affect personal space: [CISS]

• Cultural norms
• Individual differences
• Status
• Sex differences

Question 53

Personal space

Cultural norms

Definition of cultural norms

Answer 53

Cultural norms

The range of behaviours that members of a particular social group or society can be expected to show.

Question 54

personal space

Culture

Summer (1969)

[green card]

Answer 54

Summer (1969)

Aim: To see if there are cultural differences in the use of personal space.

Method: Summer observed groups of white English people and groups of Arab people in conversation.

Results: The comfortable conversation distance for the white English people was 1-1.5 m, whereas the comfortable conversation distance for the Arab people was much less.

Conclusion: The use of personal space in normal conversation varies with culture.

Question 55

Sex / Gender differences in personal space

[blue card]

Answer 55

Sex / Gender differences

Sex differences are differences due to being either male or female. These could affect personal space between individuals.

There are several differences between the personal space of men and women.

Question 56

Personal space - gender differences

Fisher and Byrne

[green card]

Answer 56

Fisher and Byrne (1975)

Aim: to Investigate differences in male / female preference for seating arrangements in a public space.

Method: Arranged for a confederate to invade the space of a person while they were sitting alone in a library. Invaders were either male or female and sat opposite the subject. After a few minutes the invader left and a student (another confederate) then came over and asked for the participant’s impressions.

Results: Male participants disliked the invader who sat opposite, but did not mind when the invader sat by them. Female participants disliked the invader sitting next to them, but did not mind the invader sitting opposite.

Conclusion: Males and females have different preferences of personal space in seating arrangements.

Question 57

personal space

Individual differences

Definition

[yellow card]

Answer 57

Factors that make one person not the same as another person, such as personality or age.

Question 58

Pesonal space

Individual differences - age

Willis (1966)

Answer 58

Willis (1966)

Aim: To see if age has an effect on personal space.

Method: Willis observed almost 800 individuals in different social situations.

Results: Those he observed tended to stand closer to people their own age and further away from people who were either very much older or younger than themselves.

Conclusion: Age difference affects how close people will stand to one another.

Question 59

personal space

individual differences - personality

Williams (1971)

Answer 59

Williams (1971)

Aim: To see if personality has an effect on personal space.

Method: College students were given personality tests to see if they were extrovert (outgoing and sociable) or introvert (quiet and reserved). They were then sent to an office one by one to receive their college grades from a tutor. The researchers noted where they chose to sit in the office when receiving their grades.

Results: Introverts sat further away from the tutor than extroverts.

Conclusion: Where someone is extrovert or introvert will affect their use of personal space.

Question 60

personal space

status

Status

Definition

[yellow card]

Answer 60

Status

Status is a person’s rank or position within society.

It seems that high-status people claim larger amounts of space in community. This can be seen as evident in their homes, gardens, cars offices etc. The lower status in rank a person is the less space they command and control in important aspects of their lives.

Question 61

personal space

status

Zahn

[Green card]

Answer 61

Zahn (1991)

Aim: To see if status has an effect on personal space.

Method: Zahn observed people of equal status approaching each other to have a conversation. He also observed people of unequal status approaching each other.

Results: Zahn found that people of lower status did not approach higher-status people with the same degree of closeness as those of equal status.

Conclusion: The use of personal space varies with differences in status when approaching other people.

Question 62

personal space

Practical Implications personal space

Answer 62

PERSONAL SPACE

These studies help to explain the importance of paying attention to how people like to be seated for examples when working in groups together in a classroom, seats are often clustered to encourage conversation. Whereas places where conversation is discouraged arrange chairs in long rows e.g. in a cinema

Practical implications of Summer’s study

This study might explain why people in Arab countries regard Europeans and Americans as unfriendly or untrustworthy: because they tend to stand back in conversation.

Perhaps it could also explain why Mediterranean men are seen as romantic by British girls: they have much closer proximity when speaking than most British males.

Fisher and Byrne

In social situation where some sits relative to us may provide us with information about whether they feel comfortable and in control. Where a man or woman chooses to sit in a situation can tell us quite a lot about how they feel about each other. Not being aware of these gender differences in personal space could result in people not realising that they are standing too close for the other person’s comfort. For example a man might be chatting away to a woman without realising that she is backing away, or using defensive body language become he has invaded her space.

Practical implications of Willis

People may mistake someone older or younger standing further away from us as being unfriendly. Also if someone looks particularly young or old for their age it might effect how close peers stand to them.

Another implication might be that if we attempt to stand closer to a person of a different age than ourselves, it might cause them to feel uncomfortable. If we are not sensitive to the personality differences between ourselves and others we might invade their personal space unwittingly.

Practical implications of Zahn’s study

This study might imply that if feels more threatening to approach someone of higher status and we show our anxiety by keeping our distance.

It also implies that we feel more comfortable approaching people of an equal status to ourselves.

This study explains why it is so important for business and other public places to understand how people like to be seated. It explains why schools arrange classrooms in tables of 6 to encourage interaction. Wheras places arranged in long rows like in a cinema well help to discourage conversation.

Question 63

EVALUATION

of studies of personal space

[green card]

Answer 63

EVALUATION

of studies of personal space

Although these factors are useful in giving a general view of how personal space is used, we have to be careful not to accept them without question. This is because these factors do not operate in isolation from other aspects of non-verbal communication. For example the other person’s body language could affect our use of personal space. If someone were of higher status but had welcoming body language (such as open posture and smiling) we might be more likely to approach them than an angry looking person of higher status and so on.

Also we probably use a number of different distances when we are with people depending on what’s happening at the time and what’s going on. For example if someone is distressed and crying versus angry and hostile. Context matters. For example on the tube, you would stand closer to someone of a different age or status, because you have little choice. Other factors such as how much we like the person and crucially our individual differences, such as if we’re introvert or extrovert come into play.

Question 64

All Definitions of NVC

Answer 64

Communication

Communication is passing information from one person to another/ others.

Verbal communication

Conveying messages using words or vocal sounds.

Non Verbal communication

A process of communication in which we send and receive messages without the use of words or vocal sounds.

Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics are the vocal features that accompany speech, (including TIE)

Tone of voice

the way words are spoken to convey emotion

Emphasis

stressing some words more than others

Intonation

inflection of the voice when speaking

Eye Contact

Eye contact is when two people are looking at each other’s eyes at the same time.

Pupil Dilation

When the pupils in the eyes expand to look large

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions are like a map that give away the thoughts and feelings that are crossing your mind but might not be being expressed verbally.

Body language

A general term to describe aspects of NVC (including posture, touch and gesture)

Posture

The positioning of one’s body often regarded as an NVC signal

Postural echo

Mirroring another person’s body position

Closed posture

Crossing your arms and legs while you are in conversation is known as closed posture.

Open posture

Open posture is having your arms uncrossed (so they are not folded across the body and not crossing the legs).

Gesture

A form of NVC in which info is conveyed by deliberate or unconscious movement of parts of the body

Touch

A form of NVC in which info is conveyed by physical contact between people

Personal space

Personal space is the distance we keep between ourselves and other people in our everyday lives.

Sex differences

Sex differences are differences due to being either male or female. These could affect personal space between individuals

Individual differences

Factors that make one person not the same as another person, such as personality or age.

Cultural norms

The range of behaviours that members of a particular social group or society can be expected to show.

Status

A person’s rank or position within society

Question 65

All practical Implications

Answer 65

EYE CONTACT:

Eye movements

Studies of eye movements in conversation help us to understand why we might feel uncomfortable talking to someone who either constantly looks at us or not at all. You are never quite sure if it’s your turn to talk or not

The ‘rules’ of eye contact in our culture help regulate successful conversations and interactions, so people who struggle with Eye contact, such as people with autism are at a disadvantage, and perhaps need to learn these rules systematically.

pupil dilations

Studies of pupil dilations, such as Hess’ shine some light on why the use of eye makeup is so popular; it has the effect of making the eyes look darker and larger, which seems to be an unconscious signal for attraction.

We have no control over pupil dilation. It is biologically programmed into us. A drawback of this could be that we cannot hide our emotions if we are attracted to someone (unless we wear dark glasses!)

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

Studies into facial expressions explains some of the behaviours that most people seem to have, for example favouring certain picture profiles of ourselves rather than others: most people prefer to show the ‘warm’[left] side.

Research into gender differences (i.e. that women show and read emotion in facial expressions more than men) might be a contributing factor into why women are often stereotyped as emotional.

BODY LANGUAGE:

Posture

These studies highlight how people in the real world may be using this information to their advantage. Knowledge of posture and how posture is perceived can be extremely helpful to professional psychologists such as therapists. How people interact can be expressed in body language as well as verbally. For example therapists might deliberately use postural echo to create therapeutic alliances with their clients. Clients in turn might then open up more in the sessions.

Salespeople and politicians may use open postures in order to make a sale/ convince people. An implication for people who don’t know about body language studies is that they may not be aware how they are being manipulated.

Touch

Studies of touch show how attitudes in the real world might be manipulated by people who want to influence and win favour with others. One experiment found that two-thirds of women agreed to dance with a man who touched their arm for a second while asking them for a dance. When the same man did not use touch, his success rate halved. This could explain why more tactile people do better romantically.

Gesture

Some restaurants have waiters/ waitresses who squat down to take an order. Customers probably see this as a friendly gesture, but studies such as the one by Lynne and Mynier suggest that this could be a deliberate policy by restaurants to increase tips for staff.

In TV films of a nodding reporter called a ‘noddie’ are often edited in later. The explanation for this is that we see a nod as a gesture of agreement, i.e. that the reporter is listening very carefully.

Hand gestures: People in positions of high status (like politicians) might use hand gestures to communicate and signal information, but they can get it very wrong (like George Bush in Australia). This sheds light on how important it is for people working internationally to understand gestures.

PERSONAL SPACE

Felipe and Sommer

These studies help to explain the importance of paying attention to how people like to be seated for examples when working in groups together in a classroom, seats are often clustered to encourage conversation. Whereas places where conversation is discouraged arrange chairs in long rows e.g. in a cinema

Fisher and Byrne

In social situation where some sits relative to us may provide us with information about whether they feel comfortable and in control. Where a man or woman chooses to sit in a situation can tell us quite a lot about how they feel about each other. Not being aware of these gender differences in personal space could result in people not realising that they are standing too close for the other person’s comfort. For example a man might be chatting away to a woman without realising that she is backing away, or using defensive body language become he has invaded her space.

Practical implications of Willis

People may mistake someone older or younger standing further away from us as being unfriendly. Also if someone looks particularly young or old for their age it might effect how close peers stand to them.

Another implication might be that if we attempt to stand closer to a person of a different age than ourselves, it might cause them to feel uncomfortable. If we are not sensitive to the personality differences between ourselves and others we might invade their personal space unwittingly.

Practical implications of Summer’s study

This study might explain why people in Arab countries regard Europeans and Americans as unfriendly or untrustworthy: because they tend to stand back in conversation.

Perhaps it could also explain why Mediterranean men are seen as romantic by British girls: they have much closer proximity when speaking than most British males.

Practical implications of Zahn’s study

This study might imply that if feels more threatening to approach someone of higher status and we show our anxiety by keeping our distance.

It also implies that we feel more comfortable approaching people of an equal status to ourselves.