nutrition1 (2) Flashcards
1
Q
- What are the shortcomings of the USDA Food Pyramid and MyPyramid?
A
They don’t follow research, and they must be careful to not offend any big companies.
2
Q
- What are the differences between the Healthy Eating Pyramid and the USDA Food Pyramid?
A
The way grains are catagorized by whole grains vs. refined starch (more like sugars). Proteins are all clumped together not mentioning red meat should be replaced by fish, poultry, beans, and nuts. Also milk is recommended at 3 glasses a day which is not great because of fat and can be replaced by calcium and vitamin D.
3
Q
- What are the advantages of whole grains over refined grains?
A
refined starches, such as white bread and white rice, behave like sugar. They add empty calories, have adverse metabolic effects, and increase the risks of diabetes and heart disease. They deliver the outer (bran) and inner (germ) layers along with energy-rich starch. The body can’t digest whole grains as quickly as it can highly processed carbohydrates such as white flour. This keeps blood sugar and insulin levels from rising, then falling, too quickly. Better control of blood sugar and insulin can keep hunger at bay and may prevent the development of type 2 diabetes. Plus, a growing body of research suggests that eating a diet rich in whole grains may also protect against heart disease.
4
Q
- List food sources of healthy fats. Why are they considered healthy?
A
Good sources of healthy unsaturated fats include olive, canola, soy, corn, sunflower, peanut, and other vegetable oils, trans fat-free margarines, nuts, seeds, avocadoes, and fatty fish such as salmon. These healthy fats not only improve cholesterol levels (when eaten in place of highly processed carbohydrates) but can also protect the heart from sudden and potentially deadly rhythm problems
5
Q
- List the healthier sources of protein from food
A
+
6
Q
- People with what health conditions should limit their consumption of egg yolks?
A
People with diabetes or heart disease, however, should limit their egg yolk consumption to no more than 3 a week. But egg whites are very high in protein and are a fine substitute for whole eggs in omelets and baking
7
Q
- Why is it necessary to offer an alternative to dairy products to meet calcium and vitamin D requirements?
A
Three glasses of whole milk, for example, contains as much saturated fat as 13 strips of cooked bacon. A lot of people are allergic to milk products.
8
Q
- Why is red meat potentially harmful to health?
A
they contain lots of saturated fat. Eating a lot of red meat may also increase your risk of colon cancer
9
Q
- Why are potatoes not included with other vegetables in the Healthy Eating Pyramid?
A
They are just like sugars.
10
Q
- What is the argument for recommending a multivitamin supplement to all patients? Which vitamins and minerals are recommended in extra amounts?
A
multimineral supplement offers a kind of nutritional backup, especially when it includes some extra vitamin D
11
Q
- Which traditional diets are also better alternatives to the USDA’s My Pyramid?
A
The Asian, Latin, Mediterranean, and vegetarian pyramids
12
Q
- Healthy eating guidelines recommend eating most vegetables in abundance, with one exception, which vegetable is it?
A
Potato
13
Q
- What are good sources of alpha-linolenic acid?
A
Flax seed oil, Soybean oil, walnut oil, china seed oil, canola oil, wheat germ oil.
14
Q
- What types of cooked meat should be limited in the diet?
A
Overcooked or charred meat.
15
Q
- What disease risks are increased by a combination of high BMI and high waist circumference?
A
- Premature death 2. Cardiovascular disease 3. Diabetes 4. Cancer of the colon, kidney, breast, or endometrium 5. Osteoarthritis 6. Gallstones 7. Infertility 8. Adult asthma 9. Snoring or sleep apnea 10. Cataracts 11. Poorer quality of life
16
Q
- What minimum percentage of weight loss is sufficient lower disease risk?
A
10% of current weight.
17
Q
- What are some examples of moderate-intensity exercise?
A
walk, golf, swimming, mowing lawn, tennis, bike, scrubbing floors, weight lifting.
18
Q
- What types of personal or family history indicate that alcohol consumption should be avoided?
A
Breast and colon cancer or alcoholism.
19
Q
- Which mineral should not be present in a multiple vitamin-mineral supplement taken by most men and postmenopausal women?
A
Iron.
20
Q
- Why are cohort studies more reliable than case-control studies in nutrition research?
A
Although the details can get complicated, large studies that follow human participants over time (randomized trials and cohort studies) tend to provide more reliable results than smaller studies that ask people about their past activities (case-control studies).
21
Q
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of randomized trials studying nutrition?
A
Although the details can get complicated, large studies that follow human participants over time (randomized trials and cohort studies) tend to provide more reliable results than smaller studies that ask people about their past activities (case-control studies).
22
Q
- What is meant by an “established relationship” between diet and health, and what determines which relationships can be considered “established.”
A
the link between (alcohol) and (heart disease) is so strong that it’s known as an established relationship.
23
Q
- What are some useful tips for deciphering medical news reported in the media? What are the characteristics of media stories about diet that determine how reliable their conclusions are?
A
Are they reporting a single story? How large is the study? Was the study done in animals or humans? Did the study look at real disease endpoints? How was diet assessed?
24
Q
- List some ways to evaluate supplement studies that may help resolve conflicting conclusions.
A
What vitamin dose did study participants take and for how long? Who were the participants and how healthy were their lifestyles? When did participants take the supplement? How did researchers measure the supplement;s effectiveness?
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25. What three aspects of weight strongly influence long-term disease risk?
How much you weigh (in relation to your height), your waist size, and how much weight you've gained since your mid-20s
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26. List the diseases associated with weight problems
Dying early, stroke, heart attack, cancer, arthritis, gallstones, infertile, asthma, snoring, sleep apnea, cataracts, poorer quality of life.
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27. What values for Body Mass Index are associated with increasing health risks?
25, 30, 40.
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28. What BMI values represent a) the boundary between healthy weight and overweight, b) the boundary between overweight and obesity?
body mass index above 25 increases the chances of dying early, mainly from heart disease or cancer, and that a body mass index above 30 dramatically increases the chances. 40 or above is extreme obesity.
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29. What is the BMI of a person who is 67 inches tall and weighs 178 pounds?
divide weight over height then divide by height again then multiply by 703. 178/67 divide by 67 then x 703= 27.88
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30. Why may “underweight” populations have increased mortality in epidemiological studies?
Large waist size is correlated to more health problems even if the person is within the BMI.
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31. When might a BMI in the overweight range not be associated with increased health risks?
Muscle and bone are more dense than fat, so an athlete or muscular person may have a high body mass index, but not be fat
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32. What are the risks of weight gain after the age of 20? Does this apply even to people who stay in a healthy BMI range?
few adults add muscle and bone after their early twenties, so nearly all that added weight is fat
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33. What measurement in addition to height and weight helps to indicate weight-related health risks? How is this measurement done?
Wrap a flexible measuring tape around your midsection where the sides of your waist are the narrowest. This is usually even with your navel. Make sure you keep the tape parallel to the floor.
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34. According to some studies, what unhealthy changes to human physiology are more likely to occur with increasing abdominal fat than with increasing fat elsewhere in the body?
waist larger than 40 inches for men and 35 inches for women increases the chances of developing heart disease, cancer, or other chronic diseases
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35. Explain the “thrifty gene” hypothesis, and how it predicts more difficulty with weight control in modern times.
It suggests that eating extra food whenever possible helped early humans survive feast-or-famine conditions
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36. Which has more impact on weight control, total calories consumed or the relative amounts of fat, protein, carbohydrate in the diet?
the quantity of food in your diet has a strong impact on weight. The composition of your diet, though, seems to play little role in weight—a calorie is a calorie, regardless of its source
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37. Why do low-fat weight-loss strategies often fail?
One reason is that many people have interpreted the term "low-fat" to mean "It's OK to eat as much low-fat food as you want." For most people, eating less fat has meant eating more carbohydrates. To the body, calories from carbohydrates are just as effective for increasing weight as calories from fat.
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38. How can recently reported successes, at least in the short-term, from low-carbohydrate diets be explained?
First, chicken, beef, fish, beans, or other high-protein foods slow the movement of food from the stomach to the intestine. Slower stomach emptying means you feel full for longer and get hungrier later. Second, protein's gentle, steady effect on blood sugar avoids the quick, steep rise in blood sugar and just as quick hunger-bell-ringing fall that occurs after eating a rapidly digested carbohydrate, like white bread or baked potato. Third, the body uses more energy to digest protein than it does to digest fat or carbohydrate
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39. What “secrets” to successful long-term weight loss can be learned from the National Weight Control Registry?
They exercised. They ate fewer calories, they watched less TV, limited fast food intake, Cut back on sugars and sweets, and ate more fruits and vegetables.
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40. What would be the qualities of the ideal weight-loss diet?
Move more and eat less.
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41. Discuss the results of intervention research comparing different weight-loss diets to each other.
The volunteers following the low carb diet had the biggest drops in triglycerides, the main fat-carrying particle in the bloodstream, and the biggest increases in protective HDL cholesterol. Both of those changes would be expected to protect against heart disease. Those following the Mediterranean diet showed the biggest reduction in low-grade inflammation, a process linked to the development of heart disease. Among the volunteers with diabetes, the Mediterranean diet yielded better fasting blood sugar and insulin than the other two diets
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42. Discuss how each of the following weight-loss diets can be made healthier: 1) low-carb, 2) low-fat, 3) high-protein.
Low fat diet: Focus on low-fat grains, vegetables, fruits, and beans; limit additional fats, sweets, high-fat snacks. Targets: 1500 calories a day for women, 1800 for men; under 30% of daily calories from fat, under 10% from saturated fat. Low carb diet: Focus on vegetarian sources of protein and fat; avoid trans fats; no set limit on calories. Targets: Under 20 grams of carbohydrates daily for the first two weeks, under 120 grams a day thereafter. Mediterranean diet: Focus on fruits, vegetables, whole grains; poultry and fish instead of red meat; added olive oil and nuts to increase intake of unsaturated fats. Targets: 1500 calories a day for women, 1800 for men; under 35% of daily calories from fat.
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43. List some strategies for increasing daily physical activity
Lots of things.
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44. What foods are emphasized in a Mediterranean-style diet?
includes plenty of fruits and vegetables and that is low in saturated fat but has a moderate amount of unsaturated fat—offers another seemingly effective alternative
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45. In the Harvard study led by Frank Sacks, how did attendance at regular group counseling sessions affect the success of the dieters?
The study also found that the more group counseling sessions participants attended, the more weight they lost, and the less weight they regained
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46. How can a person choose a diet that is more likely to work for them?
If you are serious about losing weight, find a diet that appeals to your taste buds. If it's one your family can follow, so much the better—that way you aren't making different meals for you and your family.
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47. Why is evidence from in vitro research, animal research, or ideas and opinions less reliable for choosing effective nutrition recommendations than is evidence from controlled human observational or intervention research?
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48. Consider you are reading a research study investigating the relationship between water-drinking habits and prevention of the common cold. How could you recognize whether the study is a retrospective observational design, a prospective observational design, or a controlled intervention design?
Retrospective is looking back like in a case study. So you take a group of people with the common cold and then see how much water they were drinking. Prospective is like a cohort study where you take a group of people see how much water they drink and then see how many of them get the common cold. A controlled intervention design would be to give some people water and some people a type of placebo and then see who gets the common cold.
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49. At what degrees of excess body weight (measured by BMI) does waist circumference add significant predictive ability about the health risks of the excess weight?
At 25 BMI and above.
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50. How has the current food environment contributed to the epidemic of obesity?
Overcomsumption of calories is facilitated by the abundance of high fat, high sugar foods that are available anywhere and anytime.
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51. How do behavioral or psychological factors contribute to the epidemic of obesity?
People may develop eating habits that are not associated with appetite. People may use eating to satisfy emotional needs, some disorders like depression cause overeating.
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1. Which has more impact on health and disease, total fat intake or the type of fat eaten?
The types of fats.
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2. Name the two broad categories of “good” fats
Monounsaturated, polyunsaturated.
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3. Which has more impact on blood cholesterol, cholesterol in the diet, or the type of fats in the diet?
For most people, the mix of fats in the diet influences cholesterol in the bloodstream far more than cholesterol in food does.
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4. Which category of fat makes up most of what we eat and most of what circulates in the blood?
Triglycerides make up most of the fat that you eat and that travels through the bloodstream
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5. List the food sources of each type of dietary fat
Monosaturated- olive oil, canola oil, peanuts, most nuts besides walnuts, avocado. Omega-6-most other non-hydrogenated vegtable oils, safflower, corn, sunflower. Omega-3- Flaxseed, walnuts, soy, canola oil, fatty fish. Transfats- margarines, vegetable shortening, fried foods, commercial baked goods. Saturated- whole milk, butter, cheese, ice cream, coconuts.
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6. What happens to blood lipids and blood pressure when unsaturated fats replace carbohydrate in the diet?
showed that replacing a carbohydrate-rich diet with one rich in unsaturated fat, predominantly monounsaturated fats, lowers blood pressure, improves lipid levels, and reduces the estimated cardiovascular risk
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7. Why is saturated fat unnecessary in the diet? In excessive amounts, what undesirable effects does it have on blood lipids?
Our bodies can make all the saturated fat we need, and it has undesirable effects in cardiovascular disease
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8. What advantages does the use of partially-hydrogenated fats give to the food industry?
Partially hydrogenating vegetable oils makes them more stable and less likely to spoil. It also converts the oil into a solid, which makes transportation easier. Partially hydrogenated oils can also withstand repeated heating without breaking down, making them ideal for frying fast foods.
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9. Name some important differences between traditional stick margarines and newer soft margarine?
If you need something spreadable, choose a soft margarine that is not only trans free but low in saturated fat.
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10. Which foods contain most of the trans fat consumed in the Western diet?
Most of the trans fats in the American diet come from commercially prepared baked goods, margarines, snack foods, and processed foods, along with French fries and other fried foods prepared in restaurants and fast food franchises.
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11. What undesirable effects do trans fats have on human physiology?
Trans fats are worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats because they raise bad LDL and lower good HDL. They also fire inflammation, (12) an overactivity of the immune system that has been implicated in heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and other chronic conditions. Even small amounts of trans fat in the diet can have harmful health effects
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12. How does the amount of cholesterol made by the human body compare to the amounts typically found in the human diet?
most people make more cholesterol than they absorb from their food
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13. Explain the difference between dietary cholesterol “responders” and “non-responders.”
For some people, though, blood cholesterol levels rise and fall very strongly in relation to the amount of cholesterol eaten. For these "responders," avoiding cholesterol-rich foods can have a substantial effect on blood cholesterol levels. Unfortunately, at this point there is no way other than by trial and error to identify responders from non-responders to dietary cholesterol.
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14. What is wrong with a public health message stating that people should limit the fat in their diet?
One problem with a generic lower fat diet is that it prompts most people to stop eating fats that are good for the heart along with those that are bad for it. In place of fats, many people turn to foods full of easily digested carbohydrates, or to fat-free products that replace healthful fats with sugar and refined carbohydrates.
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15. Explain the evolving understanding of the link between dietary fats and cancer of the breast and colon.
no clear evidence has linked any specific type of fat with cancer incidence. However, some red meat has been linked to some cancers.
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16. Describe some strategies for replacing foods that are high in unhealthy fats with better alternatives.
Try to eliminate trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils. Check food labels for trans fats; avoid fried fast foods. Limit your intake of saturated fats by cutting back on red meat and full-fat dairy foods. Try replacing red meat with beans, nuts, poultry, and fish whenever possible, and switching from whole milk and other full-fat dairy foods to lower fat versions. In place of butter, use liquid vegetable oils rich in polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats in cooking and at the table. Eat one or more good sources of omega-3 fats every day—fish, walnuts, canola or soybean oil, ground flax seeds or flaxseed oil.
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17. Describe some strategies for increasing foods that are high in healthy fats.
Same as answer above.
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18. What is the current understanding of the health risks of eating eggs?
consuming about an egg a day was not associated with higher risk of heart disease
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19. What are the special functions of omega-3 fatty acids?
They are an integral part of cell membranes throughout the body and affect the function of the cell receptors in these membranes. They provide the starting point for making hormones that regulate blood clotting, contraction and relaxation of artery walls, and inflammation. They also bind to receptors in cells that regulate genetic function. Likely due to these effects, omega-3 fats have been shown to help prevent heart disease and stroke, may help control lupus, eczema, and rheumatoid arthritis, and may play protective roles in cancer and other conditions.
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20. From the omega-3 family of polyunsaturated fats, distinguish between good sources of EPA/DHA and good sources of ALA.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) come mainly from fish, so they are sometimes called marine omega-3s. •Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the most common omega-3 fatty acid in most Western diets, is found in vegetable oils and nuts (especially walnuts), flax seeds and flaxseed oil, leafy vegetables, and some animal fat, especially in grass-fed animals. The human body generally uses ALA for energy, and conversion into EPA and DHA is very limited
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21. Which omega-3 functions are important for the prevention of heart disease?
These fats appear to help the heart beat at a steady clip and not veer into a dangerous or potentially fatal erratic rhythm. Omega-3 fats also lower blood pressure and heart rate, improve blood vessel function, and, at higher doses, lower triglycerides and may ease inflammation, which plays a role in the development of atherosclerosis
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22. What is the evidence for a role of omega-6 fats in heart disease?
the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fats wasn't linked with risk of heart disease because both of these were beneficial.
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23. Which omega-3 fats have evidence of a consistent and beneficial role in preventing prostate cancer?
men whose diets are rich in EPA and DHA (mainly from fish and seafood) are less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer than those with low intake of EPA and DHA
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24. Which omega-3 fat is especially important for normal nervous system development in the fetus?
a developing child needs a steady supply of DHA to form the brain and other parts of the nervous system
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25. Why may the omega-6/omega-3 ratio of the diet not be very useful in predicting health outcomes?
While there is a theory that omega-3 fatty acids are better for our health than omega-6 fatty acids, this is not supported by the latest evidence. Thus the omega-3 to omega-6 ratio is basically the "good divided by the good," so it is of no value in evaluating diet quality or predicting disease.
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27. How does the level of PCBs in seafood compare to PCBs in other parts of the U.S. food supply?
Third, more than 90 percent of the PCBs and dioxins in the U.S. food supply come from such non-seafood sources, including meats, dairy, eggs, and vegetables
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28. What fish species and sources should be avoided or limited by women who are or may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children?
Don't eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish (sometimes called golden bass or golden snapper) because they contain high levels of mercury.
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29. To what extent can increased ALA consumption compensate for low EPA/DHA consumption?
higher intake of ALA may be particularly important for protection against heart disease in people who didn't eat much fish
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30. What is the most abundant dietary lipid, and what other dietary components are also lipids?
Triglycerols are primary. Cholesterol, sterols, phospholipids, fat soluable vitamins, and other fat soluable nutrients.
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31. What two types of fatty acid tend to be increased by the process of partial hydrogenation?
Saturated and trans-unsaturated.
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32. What types of processed foods are high in trans fats?
Pastry, cheese snacks, crackers, fried foods, dounts, cake mixes, potato chips.
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34. Describe the functions of each of the four major classes of lipoprotein.
Chylomicrons- deliver TG to tissues and cholesterol to liver. VLDL- distribute endogenous TG to tissues. IDL- ??, LDL- Delivers cholesterol to tissues. HDL- collects cholesterol from tissues.
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35. Follow the path of each of these dietary components as they are absorbed and distributed on various lipoproteins: dietary triglyceride, dietary cholesterol, dietary carbohydrate containing glucose.
Chylomicrons- take dietary lipids and (Taxi) transport them in the body. First stop would be for the TG in the chylomicrons they leave in the capillaries when Lipoprotein lipase acts on them. After the capillaries the chylomicrons are called chylomicron remnants and these remnants take the rest of the lipids (besides TG) to the liver. Carbs that go to the liver are turned into TG (fatty acids). These TG or fatty acids made in the liver are shipped out in VLDL's. The VLDL's also go to the capillaries and lose the TG to tissues when they interact with Lipoprotein liapse. Once VLDL's lose the TG they are then called IDL and te IDL's either are taken back up into the liver or they become LDLs. LDL's are full of cholesterol and other lipids (like fat soluable vitamins). LDL's will be the first chance extra hepatic tissues can get other lipids. The liver also makes HDLs these HDLs will take extra cholesterol from extra-hepatic tissues and they help to facilitate their metabolism.
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36. List all of the pathways that the liver might use to regulate its internal pool of cholesterol.
Takes up dietary cholesterol from chylomicron remnants, Assembles VLDL's to transport cholesterol and endogenous TGs. The liver takes up IDL, LDL, and HDLs to increase cholesterol in the liver, Cholesterol can be converted to bile acids/salts and free cholesterol can be secreted in the bile, but most of this is reabsorbed (increase fiber increases cholesterol excreted).
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37. When serum triglycerides are high or HDL cholesterol levels are low, what dietary substitutions are advised (i.e. what types of foods should be reduced and what types should replace them)?
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38. What are the drawbacks of recommending a diet low in total fat?
Typically will lead to a higher carb diet and usually bad carbs.
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39. Distinguish between the effects of different types of dietary fat on LDL and HDL cholesterol.
trans fats- raises LDL, Saturated fats- raises LDL and HDL, Polyunsatuated and monounsaturated both lower LDL and raise HDL.
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40. Besides the effects on serum cholesterol, what other cardiovascular benefits occur when unsaturated fat replaces saturated fat?
Lowers risk of thrombosis and lowers risk of cardiac arrhythmia.
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41. Distinguish between the principal dietary sources of the four main types of fat: saturated, monounsaturated, omega-6, and omega-3 polyunsaturated.
Monosaturated- olive oil, canola oil, peanuts, most nuts besides walnuts, avocado. Omega-6-most other non-hydrogenated vegtable oils, safflower, corn, sunflower. Omega-3- Flaxseed, walnuts, soy, canola oil, fatty fish. Transfats- margarines, vegetable shortening, fried foods, commercial baked goods. Saturated- whole milk, butter, cheese, ice cream, coconuts.
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42. What are the two possible effects of partial hydrogenation on the double bonds of polyunsaturated fatty acids?
Cis or trans.
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43. What are the advantages to food processors of using partially-hydrogenated oils?
Easy to use and can last longer.
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44. List all of the effects of dietary trans fats that increase heart disease risk.
Increased LDL, lower HDL, promotes platelet dysfunction, promotes systemic inflammation, 2% Increase in calories from trans fats increases heart disease risk by 23%.
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45. What types of foods often contain large amounts of trans fats?
Commercial baked goods, vegetable shortening, fried foods, margarines.
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46. Explain the terms responders and non-responders, which are used in reference to the effects of consuming high cholesterol foods such as eggs.
For some people, though, blood cholesterol levels rise and fall very strongly in relation to the amount of cholesterol eaten. For these "responders," avoiding cholesterol-rich foods can have a substantial effect on blood cholesterol levels. Unfortunately, at this point there is no way other than by trial and error to identify responders from non-responders to dietary cholesterol.
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47. With regard to improving the LDL/HDL ratio, what type of macronutrient is the best substitution for dietary saturated fat?
Unsaturated fats.
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48. What are the structural differences between the two main categories of polyunsaturated fats?
How many double bonds and where they are found at. The essential fatty acids will be Omega-3 and Omega-6.
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49. Explain the meaning of scientific abbreviations for essential fatty acids, such as 18:3 n-3.
18= 18 carbons. The first 3 is the number of double bonds. N-3 shows that the first double bond will start 3 carbons back from the end.
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50. What makes the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids essential?
Humans do not have the enzymes to make these double bonds.
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51. List the names and scientific abbreviations of the biologically-important omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Omega-6= Linoleic acid(LA), Gamma-Linolenic acid(GLA), Dihomo-gamma-Linolenic acid(DGLA), Arachidonic acid(AA). Omega-3= Alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
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52. Name the three 20-carbon precursors to eicosanoids. Which are omega-3 fatty acids and which are omega-6?
DGLA, AA, EPA. EPA is the only Omega-3.
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53. Which fatty acid competes to some degree with alpha-linolenic acid for enzymes that synthesize longer-chain fatty acids such as EPA and DHA? What other mechanisms determine the relative amounts of different EFAs in the body?
Linoleic acid. Amounts will be effected by how many of the precursors we have in our diet.
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54. Which of the two categories of EFAs are considered less abundant in the Western diet compared to primitive human diets?
Western diet favors omega-6 10:1 over Omega-3.
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55. Which omega-6 supplement does not appear to become converted to arachidonic acid in large amounts?
GLA.
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56. Which gender group appears to have greater capacity for converting short-chain omega-3 into long-chain omega-3?
Women.
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57. Describe the known functions of each of the major omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids
AA- Pro-inflammatory, DGLA- antiinflammatory, EPA- anti-inflammatory.
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58. How does the presence of essential fatty acids in the structure of every cell and organelle influence the function of the cells and organelles?
abundant in membranse and affects membrane fluidity and permeability, receptor function, signal transduction, and transport properties.
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59. What enzymes are responsible for converting 20-carbon EFAs to eicosanoids? Name the three major classes of eicosanoids.
Cyclooxygenase- Prostaglandins (PG) and thromboxanes (TX). Lipoxygenase- leukotrienes (LT).
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60. Which 20-carbon fatty acid is most abundant in the cell membranes in those who consume typical Western diets?
Linoleic acid.
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61. How do eicosanoids derived from EPA compare to those from arachidonic acid in terms of inducing inflammation, blood vessel constriction, and clotting?
Arachidonic acid derived eicosanoids lead to inflammation, platelet stickiness, vasoconstriction. EPA derived eicosanoids lead to anti-inflammatory.
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62. Describe a diet low in arachidonic acid.
Minimal meat, no egg yolk, lowfat dairy, replace arachidonic acids with fish oils.
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64. Which omega-6 fatty acid supplement should be considered anti-inflammatory?
DGLA.
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65. Which of the special functions of the omega-3 fatty acids are important for the prevention of heart disease?
Reduced risk of heart attack and ischemic stroke.
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66. What are the arguments for whether omega-6 fatty acids are generally beneficial or hazardous for the prevention of cardiovascular disease?
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67. List six mechanisms whereby omega-3 fatty acids help reduce cardiovascular disease risk.
Reduced serum TG by 27%, platelet aggregation reduced and reduced risk of thrombosis, reduced vascular inflammatory process, inhibits atherosclerotic plaque formation, prevents arrhythmias, prevents sudden cardiac death.
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68. What are the American Heart Association recommendations regarding fish and fish oil consumption?
Everyone eat oily fish twice per week and that those with coronary heart disease eat 1 g/day of EPA plus DHA from oily fish or supplements.
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69. What is the evidence for whether omega-3 fatty acids help prevent cancer?
Evidence shows that it is unlikely to prevent cancer.
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70. What are the clinical signs of acute essential fatty acid deficiency? Why is this deficiency not the most common cause of these clinical signs?
Skin changes, growth problems, reduced resistance to infections, poor healing. This is very uncommon in Western diets.
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71. What is the difference between nutritional deficiency and insufficiency?
Deficiency not having any. Insufficiency- Not getting enough.
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72. What foods and oils are the best sources of alpha-linolenic acid?
Flaxseed oil, walnuts, canola, soybean, mustard, tofu.
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73. Which fish or shellfish are the best sources of EPA and DHA?
Herring pacific, salmon chinook, salmon atlantic, oysters, salmon sockeye, trout, tuna, crab.
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74. When may cod liver oil be a less desirable choice for omega-3 supplementation?
may contain a potentially toxic retinol.
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75. What are the possible side effects of high doses of omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids?
Allergic reactions, GI distress at high intakes, Over anti clotting effects.
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76. Name the two potentially hazardous contaminants in some fish and describe how best to choose and prepare fish to minimize exposure to contaminants.
Methyl mercury, PCB's. Don't eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel. PCB's avoid overconsumption of large predatory fish.
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77. What are the pros and cons of maternal fish intake during pregnancy?
Higher fish intake was associated with better child cognitive test performance, and higher mercury levels with poorer test scores.
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78. What are the best choices for safe fish oil and borage oil supplements?
Those that have been purified by molecular distillation. Borage oil supplements should be certified free of pyrrolizidine alkoaloids.
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79. Patients taking which medications should be monitored closely while also taking fish oils or gamma-linolenic acid supplements?
Those patients using anticoagulants.
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80. Which vitamin is required in greater amounts with increasing intake of polyunsaturated fat?
Vitamin E to protect against oxidation polyunsaturated lipids.
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81. What specific health risks have been shown to be lower in people who consume nuts regularly?
regular nut consumption (equivalent to 1 oz at least five times weekly) is associated with a significantly lower risk of cardiovascular disease. regular nut consumption is associated with significantly lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes. people who consume nuts regularly weigh less than those who rarely consume nuts.
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82. What components of nuts are probably responsible for their health benefits?
unsaturated fat, fiber, and phytosterol, folate, vitamin E, and potassium.
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83. Which type of unsaturated fat (mono or poly) is more abundant in most nuts?
Mono.
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84. Which seeds have documented evidence of health benefits?
Brazil nuts, almonds (12-15), hazelnuts (16), macadamia nuts (17-19), peanuts (20, 21), pecans (22), pistachio nuts (23, 24) and walnuts
