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1
Q

What is Blood Glucose Regulation?

A

Processes the body uses to maintain stable levels of glucose in the blood involving hormones like insulin and glucagon.

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2
Q

What is the Endocrine Pancreas?

A

The portion of the pancreas that secretes hormones like insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream.

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3
Q

What does Diabetes refer to?

A

A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high levels of blood sugar over a prolonged period.

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4
Q

What is Glycemia?

A

The level of glucose in the blood.

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5
Q

What occurs during Lipogenesis?

A

The process of making fat from nonfat substances, primarily carbohydrates and amino acids when excess calories are consumed.

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6
Q

What are Essential Fatty Acids?

A

Fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet because the body cannot synthesize them adequately.

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7
Q

What are Triglycerides?

A

A major form of lipid in food and the body, consisting of free fatty acids esterified to a glycerol backbone.

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8
Q

What are Monosaccharides?

A

Simple sugars that are the basic units of carbohydrates, e.g., glucose, fructose, and galactose.

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9
Q

What are Disaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide units linked together, e.g., sucrose and maltose.

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10
Q

What are Oligosaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates consisting of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units that are often indigestible by human enzymes.

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11
Q

What are Indigestible molecular bonds?

A

Chemical bonds in carbohydrates that human digestive enzymes cannot break down.

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12
Q

What role do Colonic bacteria play?

A

They ferment indigestible carbohydrates like oligosaccharides, producing gas and short-chain fatty acids.

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13
Q

What is Gluconeogenesis?

A

The process of making glucose from non-glucose substrates like amino acids.

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14
Q

What is the Duodenum?

A

The first part of the small intestine that receives chyme from the stomach.

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15
Q

What is the function of the Bile duct?

A

Carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum to aid in fat digestion.

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16
Q

What is the Stomach’s role in digestion?

A

It mixes food with acid and digestive enzymes to begin protein breakdown.

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17
Q

What is Insulin?

A

A hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.

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18
Q

What is Glucagon?

A

A hormone that raises blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.

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19
Q

What is the Glycemic Index?

A

A measure of a food’s potential to raise blood glucose levels.

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20
Q

What are Lipoproteins?

A

Complex particles composed of lipids and proteins that transport lipids in the bloodstream.

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21
Q

What is Protein Quality?

A

The ability of a dietary protein to support growth and maintain body tissues.

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22
Q

What is a Limiting Amino Acid?

A

An essential amino acid present in insufficient amounts in dietary protein compared to the body’s needs.

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23
Q

What is Nitrogen Balance?

A

The difference between nitrogen consumed and nitrogen excreted by the body.

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24
Q

What does Transamination involve?

A

Transferring an amino group from one amino acid to a keto acid to form a new amino acid.

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25
What is Protein Energy Malnutrition?
A condition resulting from a deficiency in both protein and energy intake.
26
What is Passive diffusion?
A type of nutrient absorption where substances move across cell membranes without energy expenditure.
27
What is Facilitated diffusion?
A type of nutrient absorption where substances move across cell membranes with the help of a carrier protein.
28
What is Active absorption?
A type of nutrient absorption where substances are moved against their concentration gradient using energy.
29
What is Phagocytosis?
A process where cells engulf large particles from their surroundings.
30
What is Pinocytosis?
A process where cells absorb fluids and dissolved substances.
31
What defines Protein Structure?
The three-dimensional arrangement of amino acids in a protein molecule.
32
What is the role of Acinar cells?
Cells in the exocrine pancreas that secrete digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct.
33
What are Secretory vesicles?
Small, membrane-bound sacs that contain substances to be secreted by cells.
34
What is the function of Amylase?
A digestive enzyme that breaks down starch into smaller sugars.
35
What are Short chain fatty acids?
Fatty acids produced by the fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates by bacteria in the colon.
36
What is an example of an Essential fatty acid?
Omega-6 fatty acids like linoleic acid found in vegetable oils.
37
What are symptoms of Essential fatty acid deficiency?
Dry, scaly skin, liver abnormalities, poor wound healing, growth failure in infants, impaired hearing and vision.
38
What is the role of Essential fatty acids in skin integrity?
They contribute to the health and barrier function of the skin.
39
What is the Amino Acid Pool?
The supply of free amino acids available for protein synthesis and metabolic processes.
40
What is phagocytosis?
Cell eating of large particles.
41
What is pinocytosis?
Cell drinking of fluids and dissolved substances.
42
What is the primary function of intracellular amino acids?
Part of the amino acid pool used for protein synthesis and other metabolic processes.
43
What do extracellular amino acids refer to?
Amino acids located outside the cells, including those circulating in the blood.
44
What macromolecules are essential for life?
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA).
45
What is the primary role of DNA?
Stores genetic information in the nucleus.
46
What is the role of RNA?
Involved in protein synthesis and carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
47
What are proteins composed of?
Amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
48
What is bioactivity?
The ability of a substance to have an effect on a living organism or its tissues.
49
Define epigenetics.
Changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence.
50
What are post-translational modifications?
Chemical modifications that occur to a protein after it has been synthesized.
51
What factors influence nutrient utilization?
Behavior, physiology, metabolism, genetics, environment.
52
What are the pathways of amino acid metabolism?
Protein synthesis, breakdown of amino acids for energy, synthesis of nonessential amino acids, conversion to glucose or fatty acids.
53
What is deamination?
The process of removing an amino group from an amino acid.
54
What is the process of energy production from protein?
Breaking down amino acids to generate ATP.
55
What are micronutrients?
Nutrients required by the body in small amounts, including vitamins and minerals.
56
Who coined the term 'vital amines'?
Casimir Funk.
57
What are Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)?
A set of nutrient-based reference values for healthy populations in the U.S. and Canada.
58
What is the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)?
Average daily intake level of a nutrient estimated to meet the requirements of 50% of healthy individuals.
59
What does Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) represent?
Average daily intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all healthy individuals.
60
What is Adequate Intake (AI)?
Recommended average daily intake level based on observed or experimentally determined approximations.
61
Define Tolerable Upper-Intake Level (UL).
The highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects.
62
What are whole grains?
Grains that contain all parts of the kernel: bran, germ, and endosperm.
63
What is the enrichment of grains?
Adding back certain vitamins and minerals lost during the milling process.
64
What is the fortification of grains?
Adding nutrients to foods that were not originally present or were present in insignificant amounts.
65
What is the role of coenzymes in metabolism?
Non-protein molecules essential for the catalytic activity of enzymes in metabolic reactions.
66
What is thiamin deficiency disease?
Beriberi.
67
What is riboflavin deficiency state called?
Ariboflavinosis.
68
What are the symptoms of niacin deficiency?
Dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia (Pellagra).
69
What can vitamin B6 deficiency lead to?
Convulsions and anemia.
70
What does folate deficiency cause?
Megaloblastic anemia.
71
What is the deficiency disease associated with vitamin B12?
Pernicious anemia.
72
What is the role of biotin?
Involved in various metabolic processes.
73
What is pantothenate a component of?
Coenzyme A (CoA).
74
What is vitamin C deficiency disease?
Scurvy.
75
What are the fates of glucose in the body?
Used for energy, stored as glycogen, converted to fatty acids.
76
What is glycogen?
The storage form of glucose in animals and humans.
77
Define condensation reaction in triglyceride synthesis.
Two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, with the loss of a small molecule such as water.
78
What is hydrolysis reaction?
A molecule is cleaved into two smaller molecules by the addition of water.
79
What is metabolism?
The set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms.
80
What does anabolism involve?
Constructing molecules from smaller units, usually requiring energy.
81
What is catabolism?
Breaking down molecules into smaller units, usually releasing energy.
82
What is cellular respiration?
Metabolic reactions that convert chemical energy into ATP.
83
What is the difference between correlation and causation?
Correlation indicates a statistical relationship; causation indicates one variable causes a change in another.
84
What is a retrospective study?
An observational study that looks backward at past exposures and outcomes.
85
What is a prospective study?
An observational study that follows a group forward in time to observe outcomes.
86
Define cohort study.
An observational study that follows a group with a common characteristic over time.
87
What is aldosterone?
A steroid hormone regulating sodium and potassium balance and blood pressure.
88
What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?
Regulates water balance by promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys.
89
What is exocytosis?
A cellular process by which substances are released from a cell.
90
What is the gastric phase of digestion?
The phase characterized by secretion of gastric acid and enzymes in response to food.
91
What is the cephalic phase of digestion?
The phase triggered by the sight, sound, smell, or thought of food before it enters the stomach.

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