NS prelim 1 Flashcards

1
Q

how does the human body store energy?

A

chemical energy extracted from food

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2
Q

simple form of CHO

A

Glucose

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3
Q

stored form of CHO

A

glycogen

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4
Q

primary store sight of CHO

A

muscle > liver

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5
Q

simple forms of lipids and fats

A

free fatty acids

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6
Q

stored forms of lipids and fats

A

triglycerides

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7
Q

primary store site of lipids and fats

A

adipose tissue > muscle > serum

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8
Q

simple forms of proteins

A

amino acids

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9
Q

stored forms of proteins

A

not really

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10
Q

primary store site of proteins

A

muscle

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11
Q

exception about protein energy storage

A

amino acids cannot be stored for later use. however, under very extreme metabolic conditions such as prolonged starvation, muscle will be broken down and its main constituent amino acids will be used to produce energy

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12
Q

energy intake balance components

A

CHO, proteins, lipids and fats, alcohol

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13
Q

3 examples of energy expenditure in the body

A

basal metabolism, thermogenesis, physical activity

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14
Q

basal (resting) metabolic rate

A

energy needed to perform normal body functions

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15
Q

thermogenesis

A

the energy cost of food processing

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16
Q

examples of processes for basal metabolic rate

A

respiration, circulation, digestion

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17
Q

examples of processes for thermogenesis

A

ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, and storage. including peristalsis and segmentation.

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18
Q

physical activity energy expenditure

A

body movement determining activity-induced

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19
Q

how to measure energy in units

A

expressed in a 1000-calorie metric unit known as kcal

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20
Q

1 kcal to joules

A

4184 joules

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21
Q

1 kcal to cal

A

1000 cal

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22
Q

1 kcal to dietary cal

A

1 dietary cal

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23
Q

scientific terms for calories

A

1 calorie is the unit of E required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius

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24
Q

methods of measuring energy

A

assessing O2 consumption, CO2 production, and heat released from metabolized nutrients

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25
Q

how to calculate energy theoretically

A

calories can be calculated by burning food and measuring the heat produced

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26
Q

calorimetry

A

the change in E of a system by measuring heat exchange

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27
Q

calorimeter

A

an instrument to measure the transfer of heat

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28
Q

bomb calorimeter

A

used to determine the E content of nutrients

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29
Q

bomb calorimeter energy value for carbohydrates

A

4.3 kcal

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30
Q

bomb calorimeter energy value for lipids

A

9.45 kcal

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31
Q

bomb calorimeter energy value for protein

A

5.65 kcal

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32
Q

bomb calorimeter energy value for alcohol

A

7.0 kcal

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33
Q

energy digestion value for carbohydrates

A

4 kcal

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34
Q

energy digestion value for lipids

A

9 kcal

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35
Q

energy digestion value for protein

A

4 kcal

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36
Q

energy digestion value for alcohol

A

7 kcal

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37
Q

calorimetry rooms

A

are big enough to contain a person and can be used as a direct form to measure the body’s heat production. this is not a very practical or accurate method, especially while exercising.

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38
Q

indirect calorimetry

A

measures respiratory gas exchange

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39
Q

example of direct calorimetry

A

calorimetry rooms

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40
Q

VO2

A

volume of O2 consumed per min.

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41
Q

VO2 equation

A

volume of O2 inhaled minus volume of O2 exhaled

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42
Q

VCO2

A

volume of CO2 produced per minute

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43
Q

VCO2 equation

A

volume of CO2 exhaled minus Volume of O2 inhaled

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44
Q

how to estimate energy expenditure using indirect calorimetry

A

the ratio of O2 consumed compared to CO2 produced can be used

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45
Q

Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)

A

measurement of how many CHO or fats we are using for energy

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46
Q

RER equation

A

RER = VCO2 / VO2 = CO2 made / O2 used

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47
Q

oxidation of palmitic acid in RER

A

0.71 (only fats)

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48
Q

oxidation of glucose in RER

A

1.00 (only carbs)

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49
Q

Cellular currency

A

ATP

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50
Q

Catabolism

A

the process of when the body needs energy, it breaks down compounds

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51
Q

3 basic units of ATP

A

a sugar called ribose, a base called adenine, and 3 phosphate groups

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52
Q

where is the energy in ATP stored

A

in chemical bonds between the phosphate groups

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53
Q

3 energy compounds that are
constantly interconverted

A

AMP, ADP, ATP

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54
Q

hydrolysis

A

ATP breakdown

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55
Q

how much energy is released from hydrolysis

A

7.3 cal/mol

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56
Q

how is energy released with ATP?

A

when a high-energy phosphate bond in ATP is broken. The loss of 1 phosphate from ATP results in the formation of ADP

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57
Q

product of hydrolysis

A

ADP + inorganic P or AMP + 2P

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58
Q

substrate phosphorylation

A

the addition of a phosphate group directly to ADP

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59
Q

where does the ATP energy come from

A

the breakdown of energy-yielding nutrients

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60
Q

anabolic reactions

A

chemical reactions that require energy

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61
Q

energy for anabolic reactions

A

the body uses ATP to transfer energy from catabolic reactions to power anabolic reactions

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62
Q

how to make a nonspontaneous reaction into a spontaneous one

A

the E released from hydrolyzing ATP is transferred to make unfavorable reactions favorable

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63
Q

metabolic pathways

A

catabolic reactions are coupled with anabolic reactions in a complex scheme to be able to do work

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64
Q

3 examples of metabolic pathways in the body

A

moving muscles, synthesizing compounds, or transporting nutrients

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65
Q

Substrate Product Metabolic Pathway

A
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66
Q

what types of energy do cells interconvert with high efficiency

A

chemical, electrochemical, mechanical, and osmotic energy

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67
Q

electron transport chain (ETC)

A

catabolism of the three energy-yielding nutrients starts down a different path, but they have the same destination of the ETC

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68
Q

glycolytic energy system substrate

A

carbohydrates (glucose and glycogen)

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69
Q

glycolysis

A

the breakdown of carbohydrates to resynthesize ATP. involves a series of 10 reactions that occur in the cytoplasm of cells (sarcoplasm of muscle cells)

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70
Q

how does glycolysis produce ATP

A

energy pathway uses glucose from the blood and liver or glycogen stored in the liver and muscles

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71
Q

glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glycogen from liver or muscle into glucose within the blood or liver to synthesize ATP

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72
Q

glycogenesis and location

A

when glucose from the blood or liver is made into the glycogen polymer in the liver or muscle

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73
Q

pyruvate

A

end product of glycolysis which may proceed in one of two directions

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74
Q

lactic acid

A

one pathway for pyruvate through the Cori cycle

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75
Q

Acetyl CoA

A

one pathway for pyruvate through the TCA cycle

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76
Q

anaerobic glycolysis alternative terms

A

anaerobic respiration, fast glycolysis, lactic acid fermentation

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77
Q

anaerobic glycolysis

A

takes place when the body needs energy quickly such as intense exercise. ATP resynthesis occurs at a faster rate but is limited in duration.

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78
Q

aerobic glycolysis alternative terms

A

aerobic respiration or slow glycolysis

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79
Q

aerobic glycolysis

A

takes place in the mitochondria. when pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria the ATP resynthesis rate is slower, but it can occur for a longer period.

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80
Q

glycolysis general process summarized

A

intake of complex carbs to pyruvate to oxygen determining processes

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81
Q

macronutrient fact: Acetyl CoA

A

the METABOLISM of all energy-yielding nutrients starts at different points but all arrive at acetyl CoA

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82
Q

two directions Acetyl CoA can proceed

A

oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP or lipogenesis for the synthesis of fats

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83
Q

oxidative phosphorylation substrate

A

CHO and or fat (acetyl CoA)

84
Q

lipogenesis

A

formation of a triglyceride from fatty acid and glycerol

85
Q

the oxidative aerobic system definition (traits)

A

occurs when O2 supply is sufficient. the primary source of ATP at rest and during steady state exercise lasting > 3 minutes.

86
Q

the oxidative (aerobic) system primarily uses which substrates

A

carbs and fats

87
Q

where do oxidative phosphorylation reactions take place

A

the inner compartment of the mitochondria

88
Q

specific processes associated with oxidative phosphorylation

A

TCA cycle and the electron transport chain

89
Q

Inner compartment of the mitochondria

A

contains the matrix, site of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, fatty acid oxidation, and the TCA cycle

90
Q

inner membrane of the mitochondria

A

site of the electron transport chain reaciton

91
Q

two subsystems of the oxidative system

A

aerobic glycolysis and aerobic lipolysis

92
Q

aerobic glycolysis components

A

CHO–glucose–pyruvate–acetyl CoA

93
Q

aerobic lipolysis components

A

Fatty acid–Acetyl CoA

94
Q

three steps of aerobic glycolysis for oxidation of CHO

A

glycolysis (glucose to pyruvate), tricarboxylic acid or TCA cycle (citric acid cycle), and Electron Transport Chain (etc)

95
Q

where goes the oxidation of CHO occur

A

glycolysis occurs in the cytosol while the TCA cycle and ETC occur in the mitochondria

96
Q

significance of TCA

A

major pathway for the oxidation of pyruvate, fatty acids, and amino acids which are used to make acetyl CoA

97
Q

how is energy supplied to the oxidative hosphorylation system

A

This cycle produces high energy electron carriers. NADH and FADH2 are coenzymes which supply electrons to the system.

98
Q

complexes CI-CIV

A

a series of electron carriers mounted in the mitochondrial intermembrane space, complexes 1 through 4

99
Q

complex CV

A

a large protein complex called F1F0 ATP synthase

100
Q

oxidative phosphorylation complexes

A

CI - CV

101
Q

electron transport chain complexes

A

CI - CIV

102
Q

electron movement among the complexes

A

Each ETC carrier recieves the electrons and pass them onto the next carrier (C1 - CV). Coenzymes deliver electrons from the TCA cycle, glycolysis, and fatty acid oxidation to the ETC.

103
Q

Oxygen movement among the complexes

A

oxygen accepts the electrons and combines with hydrogen to form H2O. specifically in CV.

104
Q

hydrogen ion movement among the complexes

A

as electrons passed from carrier to carrier, hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane to the outer compartment of the mitochondrion

105
Q

importance of Hydrogen ions with the complexes

A

the energy from the Hydrogen ion concentration gradient is used to power the synthesis of ATP

106
Q

NET ATP production

A

36 to 38

107
Q

SLOW GLYCOLYSIS: substrate level phosphorylation ATP production

A

4 total

108
Q

SLOW GLYCOLYSIS: oxidative phosphorylation ATP production + organization

A

6 total. 2 NADH with 3 ATP each.

109
Q

KREBBS CYCLE: substrate level phosphorylation ATP production

A

2 total

110
Q

KREBBS CYCLE: oxidative phosphorylation ATP production + organization

A

24 total. 8 NADH with 3 ATP each.

111
Q

KREBBS CYCLE: Via GTP ATP production + organization

A

4 total. 2 FADH2 with 2 ATP each.

112
Q

how much ATP is consumed for glycolysis

A

2 ATP

113
Q

triglycerides def + location

A

fat storage inside muscle fibers and in adipocytes within adipose tissue

114
Q

stored TG are broken down into

A

1 glycerol molecule and 3 individual fatty acids

115
Q

lipogenesis

A

fusing glycerol with 3 fatty acids

116
Q

lipolysis

A

unfusing glycerol from 3 fatty acids

117
Q

aerobic lipolysis concept + why do we go through it?

A

oxidation of fat. before fatty acids can be used for energy they must be converted to acetyl CoA. since fatty acids are very large, they produce more energy (ATP)

118
Q

aerobic lipolysis: activation

A

to cross the outer mitochondrial membrane, a fatty acid must first be activated in the cytosol by coenzyme A. this results in the formation of fatty acyl CoA. Fatty acyl CoA crosses the outer mitochondrial membrane and enters the intermembrane space.

119
Q

aerobic lipolysis: transport into the mitochondria matrix

A

an Acetyl CoA is formed after a carnitine reacts with the fatty acid CoA, where its product of acyl carnitine crosses the inner membrane. carnitine goes back to continue transporting more.

120
Q

beta oxidation of fatty acids

A

beta oxidation is an aerobic metabolic process that consists of a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions that cleave off 2-carbon subunits from a fatty acid

121
Q

aerobic lipolysis: oxidation

A

the process of beta oxidation involves enzymes that cleave off 2 carbon units from the fatty acid chain, forming acetyl CoA. this process repeats itself until the entire fatty acid has been broken down. each cleavage generates 1 NADH + H and FADH2.

122
Q

Aerobic Lipolysis overall ATP production from an 18 carbon fatty acid

A

108 total. 108 from citric acid cycle and 40 from beta oxidation.

123
Q

(18 carbon fatty acid) beta oxidation by oxidative phosphorylation of 8 FADH2 total ATP yield

A

16 total

124
Q

(18 carbon fatty acid) beta oxidation by oxidative phosphorylation of 8 NADH + H total ATP yield

A

24 total

125
Q

(18 carbon fatty acid) by substrate phosphorylation via 9 GTP

A

9 total

126
Q

(18 carbon fatty acid) by oxidative phosphorylation of 27 NADH + H

A

81 total

127
Q

(18 carbon fatty acid) by oxidative phosphorylation of 9 FADH2

A

18 total

128
Q

simple sugars

A

monosaccharides and disaccharides

129
Q

complex carbohydrates

A

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

129
Q

monosaccharides

A

single unit sugars that differ in their arrangement of atoms

130
Q

types of monosaccharides

A

glucose, fructose, galactose

130
Q

glucose importance

A

blood sugar which serves as an essential energy source for all bodily functions and physical activity

131
Q

glucose uptake

A

fructose and galactose change into glucose through the liver

132
Q

disaccharides

A

pairs of monosaccharides. they are put together by condensation reactions and taken apart through hydrolysis

132
Q

examples of disaccharides

A

maltose, sucrose, lactose

133
Q

oligosaccharides

A

made of 3 to 10 monosaccharides. humans lack the enzymes to digest some dietary oligosaccharides, so they pass undigested into the large intestines where gut bacteria break them down.

134
Q

polysaccharides

A

chains of monosaccharides made almost exclusively by glucose

135
Q

types of polysaccharides

A

glycogen, amylopectin and amylose (starches)

136
Q

amount of CHO for veggies + examples

A

5g per serving. glucose, fructose, and sucrose.

137
Q

amount of CHO for milk + examples

A

12g per serving. glucose, galactose, lactose.

138
Q

amount of CHO for sweets + examples

A

high in added sugars. glucose, sucrose, HFCS

138
Q

amount of CHO for fruits + examples

A

15g per serving. glucose, fructose, and sucrose

139
Q

foods that are not a source for CHO

A

fats and animal source foods

140
Q

amount of CHO for starches + examples

A

15g per serving. breads, pasta, etc.

141
Q

Food sources for CHO

A

includes sugars, starches, and fibers. can be found in all plant foods and in milk.

142
Q

galactose def

A

found mostly in milk as part of lactose

143
Q

glucose def

A

consumed as a component of disaccharides and polysaccharides such as dextrose

143
Q

fructose def

A

occurs naturally in fruits and honey. HFCS comes from soft drinks, ready to eat cereals, and sweetened desserts.

144
Q

sucrose def

A

found naturally in fruits, vegetables, and grains. its refined and converted into sugar cane and sugar beets (table sugar)

145
Q

sucrose composition

A

glucose and fructose

146
Q

lactose

A

principal CHO of milk

147
Q

lactose composition

A

glucose and galactose

148
Q

maltose def

A

minor constituent of foods, most notably found in barley

148
Q

maltose composition

A

glucose and glucose

149
Q

lactose intolerance

A

inability to digest lactose due to deficiency in lactase. 25 percent of US adults are lactose intolerant.

150
Q

starch def

A

rich in plant products including grains, root crops and tubers, and legumes

151
Q

starch composition

A

varying levels of amylose and amylopectin

152
Q

examples of grains

A

wheat and rice

152
Q

examples of root crops and tubers

A

yams and potatoes

152
Q

examples of legumes

A

beans and peas

153
Q

glycogen def

A

main storage of glucose for animals, found in a limited extent in meats, but not a significant contributor of CHO in the diet.

154
Q

the key about cellulose

A

we don’t have the right tools to use it as an energy source. instead, it is used as fiber.

155
Q

fiber def

A

structural components of plants that are indigestible by humans (cellulose)

156
Q

fiber examples

A

dietary fibers and non starch polysaccharides

157
Q

complex CHO sources

A

grains, legumes, root vegetables

158
Q

foods made from grains

A

breads, cereals, pastas

159
Q

examples of grains

A

wheat, corn, rice, rye, oats, barley, millet, quinoa, farro

160
Q

whole grains vs refined grains

A

the difference is that the whole grain contains three components– bran, endosperm, and germ– whereas refined grain only has endosperm.

161
Q

bran

A

fiber filled outer layer with B vitamins and minerals

162
Q

endosperm

A

starchy carbohydrate middle layer with some proteins and vitamins

163
Q

germ

A

nutrient packed core with B vitamins, vitamin E, phytochemicals, and healthy fats.

164
Q

refining process effects

A

the germ and gran are removed, which contain the most of the fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, fats, and antioxidants

165
Q

the 100 percent stamp - whole grains

A

for products where all of the grain is whole grain. minimum requirement of 16 grams of whole grain per serving

166
Q

a full serving of whole grain

A

16 g

167
Q

the 50 percent stamp - whole grains

A

for products where at least 50 percent of the grain is whole grain. minimum requirement is 8g of whole grain per serving.

168
Q

a half serving of whole grain

A

8g

169
Q

the basic stamp - whole grains

A

for products that contain a significant amount of whole grain but which contain primarily refined grain. minimum requirement of 8g whole grain per serving

170
Q

HFCS structure

A

enzymes convert starch into individual glucose molecules. additional enzymes convert some of the glucose into fructose.

171
Q

HFCS percent composition

A

55 percent fructose and 45 percent glucose

172
Q

sucrose percent composition

A

50 percent fructose and 50 percent glucose

173
Q

path of fructose after consumption

A

once consumed, fructose is converted to glucose/glycogen and or fatty acids and STORED IN THE LIVER (becomes fat)

174
Q

excessive fructose consumption

A

can lead to non alcoholic fatty liver disease, amongst other health concerns. increased TG, LDL-C, and visceral fat.

175
Q

3 brush border enzymes

A

maltase, sucrase, lactase

176
Q

salivary amylase

A

breaks down starch in the mouth secreted from the mouth

177
Q

pancreatic amylase

A

breaks down starch in the small intestine secreted from the pancreas

178
Q

maltase

A

breaks down maltose into glucose (secreted from small intestine)

179
Q

sucrase

A

breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose (secreted from the small intestine)

180
Q

lactase

A

breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose (secreted from small intestine)

181
Q

digestion and absorption of CHO in the mouth

A

mechanical digestion and chemical digestion via salivary amylase

182
Q

digestion and absorption of CHO in the stomach

A

CHO is halted because it is improper conditions for absorption

183
Q

digestion and absorption of CHO in the small intestine

A

pancreatic enzymes and brush border enzymes break down CHOs. only monosac are absorbed.

184
Q

digestion and absorption of CHO in the large intestine

A

bacterial enzymes digest some CHOs

185
Q

final absorption of CHOs

A

once CHo are fully digested into monosaccharides they can be absorbed across the wall of the small intestine. the absorption across the intestinal wall occurs through enterocytes, and only monosaccharides can be absorbed through them

186
Q

enterocytes

A

absorptive cells that absorb monosaccharides into the intestinal wall

187
Q

path of CHOs after final digestion

A

once the monosaccharides enter the bloodstream, they are sent to the liver via the portal vein. in the liver, fructose and galactose are converted to glucose and glycogen.

188
Q

where will glucose go next (metabolic stuff)

A

used for fuel in ATP production, stored as glycogen for glycogenesis, converted to fatty acids in adipose tissue for lipogenesis.

189
Q

excess glucose storage

A

liver and skeletal muscle have a limited storage capacity for glycogen so it will enter lipogenesis

190
Q

lipogenesis

A

the process of fatty acid and triglycerides synthesis. Excessive fructose consumption dramatically increases lipogenesis.

191
Q

triglycerides from glucose

A

Fatty acids are combined with glycerol to form TAGs and stored
in fat cells (adipocytes).

192
Q

Adequate intake for fiber

A

38 g per day for men. 25 g per day for women.

193
Q

UL for fiber

A

there is no UL

194
Q

RDA for CHOs

A

130 g a day for adults and children

195
Q

AMDR range for CHO

A

45 to 65

196
Q

dietary value of CHO in a 2,000 calorie diet

A

900 to 1300 kcals which is ~ 225 - 325 g of CHO

197
Q

glucose is the ___________ source for ___________?

A

Primary source of energy for the brain and CNS

198
Q

Muscle glycogen is ____________ source for ___________ especially ______________

A

Muscle glycogen is the primary energy source for the body, especially during exercise

199
Q

Glucose is ________________ source for ____________ where __________ is _______________

A

Glucose is the primary energy source of RBCs, with ~90% is catabolized anaerobically