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Logic And Critical Thinking SCMD > November Exam Cards > Flashcards

November Exam Cards Flashcards

1
Q

Statement

A
  • claim or assertion
  • proposition+ assertion
  • made/ advanced by a speaker that commits to the truth of that statement
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2
Q

Premise

A
  • statements given as reasons for believing conclusion
  • assumed/ taken for granted
  • supports the conclusion—
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3
Q

Conclusion

A
  • statement that’s is advanced/defended in argument
  • supported by premises
  • not taken for granted
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4
Q

Argument

A
  • group of two or more statements one of which is the conclusion
  • premises support conclusion if the assumption that the premises are all true increases the probability that the conclusion is true
  • can be valid and have fallacies
  • being deductively valid or non-deductively strong a necessary but not sufficient condition for being a good argument
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5
Q

Compound argument

A
  • two or more arguments
  • linked by common statements
  • include intermediate conclusions
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6
Q

Rational argument

A
  • premises support the conclusion

* premises are true/ there is good reason to believe they are true

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7
Q

Intermediate conclusion

A
  • supported by premises
  • therefore is a conclusion
  • but acts as a premise in the overall argument
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8
Q

Proposition

A
  • an expressed thought/ idea that is “truth conditional”

* can be true or false

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9
Q

Conditional statement

A
  • links to or more propositions
  • through if…then
  • one proposition is a condition for another proposition
  • may be asserted without any of the individual propositions being asserted
  • if antecedent is true, consequent is true
  • consequent may be true even if antecedent is not true
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10
Q

Antecedent

A
  • governed by if

* truth of antecedent is sufficient but not necessary for truth of the consequent

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11
Q

Consequent

A
  • conditioned by/ flows from antecedent
  • truth of consequent is necessary but not sufficient for the truth of antecedent
  • truth of consequent is possible without the truth of the antecedent
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12
Q

Explanations

A
  • consists of two propositions
  • not intended to support truth of its propositions
  • intended to establish an explanatory relation between the propositions
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13
Q

Explanandum

A
  • a proposition describing the event/state of affairs

* taken for granted

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14
Q

Explanans

A
  • one or more propositions

* describes the causal or other factors thought to explain the state of affairs

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15
Q

Implication

A

• one proposition logically implies another if the argument from the first to the second is valid

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16
Q

Cognitive biss

A
  • natural pattern of reasoning that impedes the process of reaching rational or logical conclusions
  • confirmation bias
  • availability heuristic
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17
Q

Confirmation bias

A
  • skews non-deductive reasoning
  • people tend to be biased in favor of beliefs or hypotheses that they like
  • people tend to be biased in favor of confirming evidence rather than disconfirming evidence even when they are personally indifferent toward the hypothesis or belief in question
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18
Q

Ad hominem fallacy

A
  • undermine a claim by appealing to negative or prejudicial features of the character, views, interest, circumstance of one or more persons who support that claim
  • criticisms/ suggestions irrelevant to the question of whether the conclusion is true
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19
Q

Irrelevant appeal to authority fallacy

A

• conclusion advanced or strength of claim that X accepts proposition
• X doesn’t have real authority on the subject matter
• a non expert is entitled to trust an experts opinion 1) there is consensus
2) reasonable to believe that the field is rationally grounded

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20
Q

Irrelevant appeal to popular opinion fallacy

A

• irrelevant to its truth or falsity

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21
Q

Irrelevant emotional appeal fallacy

A

Emotions not relevant to truth not falsity of conclusion

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22
Q

Argument from ignorance fallacy

A
  • based on the claim that is opposite
  • has not been proved/ established
  • to make a claim one must show evidence, cannot claim: there is no evidence that it doesn’t therefore it does
  • if p not p
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23
Q

Straw man Fallacy

A
  • attack position- misrepresentation or misinterpretation- easier to criticize
  • attacking something weaker than the actual argument
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24
Q

False dilemma fallacy

A
  • fails to cover all the relevant alternatives

* presupposes too few alternative possibilities

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25
Q

Fallacy of ambiguity

A

• strength/validity disappears when the argument is re-expressed without the use of ambiguous words or expressions

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26
Q

Circular argument fallacy

A
  • conclusion is presupposed
  • would not accept the premises without accepting the conclusion independently
  • claimed itself already assumed in the premises
27
Q

Hasty generalization fallacy

A

• inductive generalization based on a sample that is too unrepresentative or too small to make the conclusion probable

28
Q

Gamblers fallacy

A

• belief that statistical imbalances in random events will occur in the future

29
Q

Ecological Fallacy

A

• correlations that hold for a population are assumed to hold for individuals within that population

30
Q

Regression fallacy

A
  • thinking that the effect of a deviation is a cause of regression to the mean
  • deviation from the mean is usually followed by a regression to the mean
31
Q

False cause fallacy

A
  • argument for a causal relationship on the basis of a correlation between the relevant factors that is too limited or might be accidental
  • inference based on an accidental correlation
  • argument from the premise that one event preceded another to the conclusion that it caused it
32
Q

Only explanation fallacy

A
  • to suppose that an explanation is supported just because it is the only available explanation
  • argument to the effect that a proposition is true because it gives the only available explanation of one or more states of affairs specified by its premises
33
Q

Deductively valid

A
  • truth of premises guarantee conclusion is true
  • conclusions follow with certainty
  • all premises true—> conclusion is true( not always true)
  • premises false—> conclusion false
  • premises false—> conclusion true
  • intend to guarantee truth of their conclusion
34
Q

Deductively sound

A
  • valid: all premises are true
  • premises certify the conclusion
  • guarantee the truth if the conclusion
35
Q

Inductive

A
  • projection intact is not deductively guaranteed by the evidence
  • generally based in frequency in the sample
  • sample must accurately represent the entire group about which the conclusion is reached
36
Q

Inductive generalization

A

Projection of statistical regularities onto new cases

37
Q

Deductive strength

A
  • measured on: premises of argument support its conclusion significantly more than they would support the opposite conclusion
  • it is possible for conclusion to be false even if all premises are true
38
Q

Non-deductively strong

A
  • premises still provide good support for conclusion
  • if premises are true= COGENT
  • if premises true significantly increase the likelihood that the conclusion is true
39
Q

Formal inductive arguments

A

• number is assigned to the degree of probability

40
Q

Informal inductive arguments

A

• do not assign numbers to probability

41
Q

Availability heuristic

A

• people tend to judge the probability of an event by the ease at which they can bring to mind instances or examples of that event

42
Q

Cogent arguments

A
  • guarantee the truth of their conclusions

* strong argument with true premises

43
Q

Abductive arguments

A
  • arguments to the best explanation
  • argument from supposed facts- to a proposed causal explanation of those facts
  • explanations that are advanced involve concepts that are not involved in the description of the facts that they are meant to explain.
  • used to generate hypotheses about particular facts given general laws and theories
  • intended to be strong
  • conclusion goes beyond the available evidence
  • apply criteria of adequacy for explanations
44
Q

Abductively strong

A
  • situation described by the conclusion would provide a good explanation of the circumstance described by the premises
  • yields predictions that could turn out false
  • do real work in relation to the supposed explananda mentioned in the premises
  • can be supported by one observed phenomenon
45
Q

Explanations

A
  • must be internally consistent: free of contradiction

* must be externally consistent

46
Q

Criteria for adequacy

A
  • testability
  • fruitfulness
  • scope
  • simplicity
  • conservatism
47
Q

Valid arguments

A
  • all premises true—> conclusion true
  • one/ more premises false—> conclusion false
  • one/more premises false—> conclusion true
  • no possible argument with this form in which all premises are true and the conclusion is false
48
Q

Formally valid

A

• depends on the logical form or logical structure

49
Q

Materially valid

A
  • depends on the meanings of non-logical words

* can be formally invalid

50
Q

Modus ponens

A
  • ALWAYS VALID
  • P—>Q
  • P therefore Q
51
Q

Affirming the consequent

A
  • ALWAYS INVALID
  • P—> Q
  • Q therefore P
52
Q

Denying the antecedent

A
  • ALWAYS INVALID
  • P—> Q
  • ~P therefore ~ Q
53
Q

Modus Tollens

A
  • ALWAYS VALID
  • P—> Q
  • ~Q therefore ~P
54
Q

Sound argument s

A
  • guarantee the truth of their conclusion

* valid argument with true premises

55
Q

Strong arguments

A
  • make conclusion probable ONLY if they have true premises
  • don’t need to have true premises
  • may have conclusions that are not probably true
56
Q

Argument is rationally convincing

A
  • the truth if it’s premises would either guarantee or significantly increase the probability that the conclusion is true
  • the argument has true premises
  • good reason to believe that its premises are true
57
Q

Deductive argument

A
  • intended to guarantee the truth if its conclusion
  • if argument is sound/ valid good reason to believe conclusion
  • intended to be strong
58
Q

Deductively valid argument

A

• it is not logically possible for all its premise to be true and its conclusion false

59
Q

Sounds argument

A

• a deductively valid argument that has true premises

60
Q

Inductive arguments

A
  • intended to support their conclusion on the basis of considerations about frequencies
  • determining the quality of the arguments sample
  • rationally convincing if argument is cogent
  • truth of premises increase probability that conclusion is true
61
Q

Confirmation bias

A

• a cognitive bias towards favoriting confirming evidence over disconfirming evidence

62
Q

Inductive sample

A

• is either too small or fails to represent

63
Q

Abductive argument

A

• rationally convincing if the argument significantly raises the probability that its conclusion is true

64
Q

Conservative explanation

A

• an explanations that fits with established beliefs

Logic And Critical Thinking SCMD (1 decks)

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