not this one allie Flashcards
What you need to know
Methods of Investigation
- The use of scientific methods and techniques which aim for objectivity.
- Formulation of testable hypotheses to promote enquiry.
- Procedures for the experimental method of investigation: independent and dependent variables.
- Advantages and disadvantages of this method of investigation (including ecological validity).
Methods of Control, Data Analysis and Data Presentation
- Experimental designs:
- independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs.
- Advantages and disadvantages of each experimental design.
- Target populations, samples and sampling methods:
- random;
- opportunity;
- systematic;
- stratified.
- Advantages and limitations of each sampling method.
- The use of standardised procedures, identification and control of extraneous variables, instructions to participants.
- Random allocation, counterbalancing and randomisation.
- Calculations, including mean, mode, median, range and percentages. Anomalous results and their possible effects.
- Graphical representations, including bar charts.
- Research in natural and experimental settings, including advantages and limitations of each
Ethical Considerations
- Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
- ethical issues in psychological research as outlined in the British Psychological Society guidelines
- ways of dealing with each of these issues.
methods of investigation
1.
What is the scientific / experimental method
YELLOW CARD
The use of scientific methods and techniques that aim for objectivity is called the scientific or experimental model.
Methods of investigation
2.
Define experiment
YELLOW CARD
An experiment is the manipulation of variables. The method of research in which all variables other than the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) are controlled. This allows the researcher to identify a cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV.
Methods of investigation
3.
Procedures for the experimental method of investigation: the steps
Blue card
Most psychologists believe that studies of human behaviour should be carried out in scientific settings whenever possible. This means following procedures that have been used by all scientists. The most common is to conduct experiments by:
- Gathering information
- Studying it to identify patterns or relationships,
- Generating theories to explain these patterns or relationships
- and formulating a testable hypothesis
Methods of investigation
4. Procedures for the experimental method of investigation: ROVas
Blue card
In the experimental / scientific model the method employed to test the hypothesis should be [doggedly thorough:Rovas the dog]
- Replicable (it can be repeated)
- Objective (fact based)
- Value free (not biased by your opinions)
- Standardised (the same throughout)
Unlike some other methods that researchers use an experiment allows researchers to carefully change things and see what happens. They have greater control over what happens. The closest the researcher can get to achieving these is to use a laboratory experiment, because of the high level of control of the variables.
Methods of investigation
5. Laboratory studies as most scientific
BLUE CARD
The closest the researcher can get to ROVaS replicable, objective, value free standardised, and data is through a laboratory experiment.
This because the researcher can try to control all of the variables within the study and test for cause and effect e.g. in Milgram’s experiment (teachers and learners)
Methods of investigation
6.
An example of a study using scientific/ experimental method
Milgram
Green card
In Milgram’s famous experiment he was able to control the investigation:
- He fixed the roles of the teacher and the learner.
- He had a confederate playing the role of the learner.
- The responses that he pretended came from the learner were taped, so this was standardised.
- And the person playing the role of the experimenter/ scientist had a list of prods to use if the learner hesitated/ resisted.
Methods of investigation
7.
Examples of studies that use the scientific/ experimental model
Methods of investigation
8.
What is an Aim?
BLUE CARD
An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation. It is a straightforward expression of what the researcher is trying to find out from conducting an investigation. The aim typically involves the word “investigate” or “investigation”.
e.g. Milgram (1963) investigated how far people would go in obeying an instruction to harm another person.
Methods of investigation
9.
What are hyphotheses/
What is a hypothesis
BLUE CARD
The researcher, once they know their aim, will try to write a more precise statement which they will test to see if it holds true. It usually involves a prediction about how one variable will affect another variable. This is called a hypothesis.
When we write a hypothesis this usually involves proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependant variable (what the research measures).
Methods of investigation
10.
Define Hypothesis
Definition …
Yellow card
A hypothesis is a precise and testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. This is about the relationship between two variables (IV and DV)
When the method of investigation is an experiment this is called the experimental hypothesis
Methods of investigation
11.
Examples of Hyphotheses
Blue card
An example of an experimental hypothesis is:
Participants sitting alone will respond faster to a call for help than participants sitting with others.
Methods of investigation
12.
Independent and dependent variables
BLUE CARD
Experiments enable researchers to test cause and effect. The experimenter aims to keep all variables (things that vary) constant except the one that they are investigating. This is the independent variable. This is the variable that is manipulated ‘under the control’ of the researcher.
The researcher then measures what effect this has on another variable. This is called the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the measured outcome.
In order to write the experimental and null hypotheses for an investigation, you need to identify the key variables in the study. A variable is anything that can change or be changed, i.e. anything which can vary. Examples of variables are intelligence, gender, memory, ability, time etc.
Methods of investigation
13.
Define Independent and dependent Variables
Yellow card
Independent variable
The variable that the experimenter/ researcher manipulates or alters to look for an effect on another variable. This variable produces the two conditions of the study
Dependent variable
The variable that the researcher measures to see if the IV has affected it.
Methods of investigation
14.
How to work out the IV and DV
Blue card
You can find the IV and DV by asking yourself to complete the following:
This experiment/ study/ investigation is looking at the effect of —————— (the IV) on ———— (the DV)
The first gap in the sentence is filled in with the IV or two conditions of the experiment that are being altered or manipulated by the experimenter. The second gap will be filled with the DV or performance of the participants that the experimenter plans to measure.
E.g. in the idea of studying the question about students who listen to music. This is experiment/ study/ investigation is looking at the effect of the presence or absence of music (the IV) on the score in a learning test (the DV). Then it’s easy to write the hypothesis: E.g. the presence or absence of music has an effect on the score in a learning test.
Methods of investigation
15.
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis
BLUE CARD
[Extra knowledge]
In research, usually the hypothesis is written in two forms, the null hypothesis, and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other). It states that results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated. It’s the opposite of the experimental hypothesis in that it states that there will be no change in behaviour. — -the alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on the other). It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.———————————————————Because we can never 100% prove the alternative hypothesis. What we do instead is see if we can disprove, or reject, the null hypothesis. If we can’t reject the null hypothesis, this doesn’t really mean that our alternative hypothesis is correct – but it does provide support for the alternative / experimental hypothesis.
Methods of investigation
16.
Example of using hypotheses and variables
School concentration – late nights
Blue card
Let’s consider we’re testing if students remember better when they go to bed early than when they go to bed late. (IV=Time to bed, DV=ability to remember). Now, if we decide to study this by giving one half a test after a bed time after 10 and one half a test with a bed time before ten and then measuring their immediate recall of material covered in each session. The experimental hypothesis states that students will recall significantly more information after an early night. Note that the null hypothesis states that these will be no significant difference in the amount recalled after a late night than an early night. Any difference will be due to chance or confounding factors.
Methods of investigation
17.
Example of using hypotheses and variables
School concentration – Monday or Friday
Blue card
Let’s consider a hypothesis that many teachers might subscribe to: that students work better on Monday morning than they do on a Friday afternoon (IV=Day, DV=Standard of work). Now, if we decide to study this by giving the same group of students a lesson on a Monday morning and on a Friday afternoon and then measuring their immediate recall on the material covered in each session we would end up with the following:
The experimental hypothesis states that students will recall significantly more information on a Monday morning than on a Friday afternoon.
The null hypothesis states that these will be no significant difference in the amount recalled on a Monday morning compared to a Friday afternoon. Any difference will be due to chance or confounding factors.
Methods of investigation
18.
Yellow card
What are 3 Different types of experimental investigations?
When psychologists plan research they choose the method that is most appropriate to what they are investigation:
- Laboratory
- Field
- Natural
Methods of investigation
19.
Laboratory experiments
Blue Card
In a laboratory experiment there is a high degree of control because researchers can isolate cause and effect by controlling other variables They psychologist decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardised procedure. (E.g. Milgram)
Methods of investigation
20.
Disadvantages of Laboratory experiments
Disadvantages of laboratory experiments
- It’s an artificial setting and can intimidate participants or make them more obedient. This may bring about unnatural behaviour which doesn’t generalise to real life
- Being in a strange, formal setting; being treated impersonally by researchers reminding people that something artificial is going on. This can affect participants. These affects are called. Demand characteristics. Any features of the research that may affect participants’ behaviour making them act unnaturally or look for cues to tell them what the research is about and behave accordingly.
- Settings and tasks can be very unrealistic. This raises the question of ecological validity. Because results are generated from a situation that is unlike everyday life, to what extend can the conclusions be generalised to everyday life?
Methods of investigation
21.
Advantages of Laboratory experiments
Blue card
Advantages of laboratory experiments
- It’s easy to replicate (repeat using the same procedures) because the experimenter has control over the variables.
- Experiments are objective because the procedures are set up without biases from the researcher
- An experiment can gather quantitative date which can be easily analysed
Methods of investigation
22.
Define Demand Characteristics
Yellow card
Demand characteristics. Any features of the research that may affect participants’ behaviour, making them act unnaturally or look for cues to tell them what the research is about and behave accordingly.
Methods of investigation
23.
Define Ecological validity
Yellow card
The degree to which the findings/ conclusions from a study can be generalised to everyday life beyond the research setting?
Methods of investigation
24.
Field Experiments
Blue card
In a field experiment the psychologists manipulates the independent variable (IV)but the experiment takes place in a real life setting for example, a university, school, summer camp
(E.g. Sherif et al Robbers Cave; Eliot’s Blue eyes brown eyes; Piliavin’s study into ‘Good Samaritans)
Methods of investigation
25.
Disadvantages of Field experiments
Blue card
Disadvantages of field experiments
- Deception: because participants do not know that they are taking part in an investigation in the majority of field experiments, the researchers are deceiving them. However deception is often necessary.
- As the participants are being deceived, the researchers do not have their consent, let alone, full informed consent. However, this cannot always be obtained, as demand characteristics would then be present, and real behaviour would not be demonstrated.
Methods of investigation
26.
Advantages of Field experiments
Blue card
Advantages of field experiments
- Because the study is taking place in a natural setting, the behaviours is more likely to be more natural compared with a laboratory experiment; there is a higher ecological validity
- There is less chance of demand characteristics – with most field experiments the participants do not know that they are taking part in an investigation.
Methods of investigation
27.
Quasi or Natural experiments
Blue card
The quasi or natural experiment is one in which the independent variable occurs in real life, so the researcher cannot ‘create’ a difference for the purpose of the experiment. In a quasi experiment the IV may be age, gender or race. In a natural experiment the IV may already be occurring. ———-EG the effect of the media on eating disorders. Used a Caribbean island where TV had not been introduced and where there were no diagnoses of eating disorders. However a few years later when TV was introduced a number of girls had been diagnosed (Becker et al.) This is an example of a natural experiment, as the behaviour occurred naturally. The researchers did not manipulate anything. Some examples of what could be investigated using a natural experiment are: How people cope in a hurricane / The effect of cigarette sales after the ban on smoking ban (in public places) in the UK [consider how you might conduct such an experiment]
Methods of investigation
28.
Advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments
Blue card
Advantages of natural experiments:
- Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate behaviours that, for ethical reasons, could not be studied or created.
- Because participants are unaware that they are taking part in an investigation, there will be less chance of demand characteristics and more natural behaviour.
Disadvantages of natural experiments:
- Because the independent variable is not controlled by the investigator, there is less control from the researcher’s point of view.
Methods of investigation
29. Define condition
YELLOW CARD
An experiment is usually organised so there are two trials, after which the performances of the participants are compared. These are the conditions of the experiment.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
30. Experimental design
Blue card
The way in which participants are assigned to groups is called the experimental design. How they are used. There are usually 2 conditions in an experiment and the researcher has to decide who will take part in each condition.
(E.g. researchers might want to know if one group of people are better at something than another group so might have 2 groups. Sometimes though 1 group experiences the independent variable and the other group (the control group) does not. )
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
31. Define Experimental Design
Yellow card
The way in which participants are assigned to groups.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
32. Define condition
YELLOW CARD
An experiment is usually organised so there are two trials, after which the performances of the participants are compared. These are the conditions of the experiment.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
33.
What are the 3 types of experimental design?
The 3 types of experimental design are:
- Independent groups design
- Repeated Measures design
- Matched-pairs design.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
34.
Independent-Groups Design
Blue card
The available people for the experiment are divided into 2 groups. Each group is independent of the other. 1 group takes part in one of the conditions of the experiment; and the other takes part in the remaining condition of the experiment.
E.g. we could test the effect of different music (the IV) on a person’s recall by splitting the experimental group in two. Grp 1 could listen to pop music and group 2 to classical music. Both groups would be given the same memory test. The control group would have the memory test but no music would be played.
In laboratory and some field experiments the researcher is able to choose which participants are assigned to the experimental group and which to the control group. Assigning them to groups should be by random allocation so that everyone has an equal chance.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
35.
What are the strengths of the independent group design?
Blue card
It’s the quickest and easiest way of allocating participants;
Because they are assigned randomly to groups there are no order effects (which occur with repeated measures)
Often the same material can be used for the tasks in both conditions
Participants cannot work out the aim of the study because they only take part in one condition.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
36.
What are the weaknesses of the independent group design?
Blue card
Having different people in each condition could be why the results are different: People vary in their experiences, attitudes, intelligence, alertness, moods and so on. These are participant variables. Because participants are assigned randomly the researchers do not know, for example whether one group comprises most of the more alert or skilled participants. If this were the case these participant variables might produce differences between the results from the two groups that are not due to the independent variable. This is why a larger sample is needed to reduce this effect.
You need more people for the study.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
37. What is random allocation?
Yellow card
Randomly assigning participants into different groups
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
38.
What are participant variables?
Yellow card
Participant variables are the differences between the people who take part in the study. This may affect the results of an experiment that used as independent group design. E.g. people vary in their experiences, attitudes, intelligence, alertness, moods and so on. These minor differences can cause a random error in the results. An error that occurs by chance.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
39.
Repeated-measures design
There is 1 group of participants. Every participant goes through both experiences (the experimental condition and the control condition). For example the participants taking part in the music and memory test would experience all 3 conditions, pop music, classical music and no music. To combat order effects or demand characteristics on the results counterbalancing should be carried out.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
40.
What are the strengths of the repeated measures design?
Because the same people are in both conditions, there are no participant variables.
You only need 10 people to get 20 results because each person produces two ‘scores’ requires fewer participants, as the participants are in both conditions.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
41.
What are the weaknesses of the repeated measures design?
blue card
There are drawbacks because it can produce biased results. The participant may guess the aim of the study when they take part in the second condition, so demand characteristics might affect the results. Taking part in both conditions may produce order effects, or practice effects, and may affect participant’s performance.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
42.
Define Order effects and practice effects
Yellow card
Experiencing both the experimental and control conditions in a repeated-measures design may affect participants’ performance by damaging it (because they have become bored or tired of repeating the task) – Order effects:
or improving it (because they have already done a similar task – the practice effect.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
43.
Counterbalancing
Blue card
To combat the influence of order effects or demand characteristics on the results, counterbalancing should be carried out: this means reversing the order of the conditions for the participants. The sample is split in 2: one half does the experimental condition (A) and then the control condition (B); the other half does the control condition (B) and then the experimental condition (A) ABBA design. Although order effects will still occur- they will occur for both groups and balance each other out. In the music example we could have half of the group: no music; then pop/classical; the other half pop/ classical and then no music condition.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
44.
Define counterbalancing
Yellow card
Counterbalancing means reversing the order of the conditions for the participants (to combat order effects or demand characteristics).
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
45.
Matched-Pairs design
Available people are matched for qualities into pairs on the basis of variables relevant to the study, such as age, gender, intelligence, reading ability or socioeconomic background. This may require pre-tests in order to ensure good matching, and then one of each pair is randomly assigned to the experimental condition and the other to the control condition. The perfect matched-pairs design is one that used identical twins, assigning one to each condition.
Methods of control, data analysis and data presentation
46.
Strengths and weakness of the matched pairs design
Strengths: Because participants experience only one condition of the experiment there are no order effects (so no need for counterbalancing)
Often the same material can be used for the task in both conditions
Weaknesses: This method can be more expensive and time consuming that the others and is not always successful
Some participant variables are still present
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
47.
Samples and sampling methods
Blue card
Now you need to consider where you will get the people from to take part in the experiment The sample is made up of the participants in the research.
They should be as REPRESENTATIVE as possible of the target population. The more representative the sample the more confident the researcher can be that the results can be GENERALISED to the target population. However in reality very few samples are truly representative because of the difficulties of sampling methods (choosing participants).
The sampling methods we could use are:
[ROSS]
- Random sampling;
- Opportunity Sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Stratified sampling.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
48. Define Target population
Yellow card
The large group of people the researcher wants to study.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
49.
Define sample and sampling methods
yellow card
The sample is the participants used in the research.
Sampling methods are the ways of choosing participants. This includes
Random sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
50.
Random Sampling
Blue Card
In a random sample every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This means that the researcher must identify all the members of the target population, number each person and then draw out the required number of people. If the target population is small, then all the numbers can go into a hat to be drawn out. If it is large, then a computer programme can be used to do this. This sampling method is fair and not biased because the researcher cannot choose the individual participants. However this sample might still not be representative because, for example, the researcher could draw out too many females, just by chance. E.g. in a study with a target population of seven year olds, the names of every seven yr old from all the local primary schools are gathered, their names put on a slip of paper and drawn out of the box. Or they might all be given a number and a computer might select random numbers.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
51.
Define random sampling
yellow card
Every member of the target group has an equal chance of being selected. All members of the target population are identified and then selected out of a hat/ with a computer programme.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
52.
Strengths of Random Sampling
Blue Card
Strength: No researcher bias- Random sampling is the best technique for providing an unbiased, representative sample of a target population.
Weaknesses: It can be very time consuming and is often impossible to carry out, particularly when you have a very large target population.
How could you gather a random sample of people living in your area? How could you obtain the information, and how would you try to make the sample random?
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
53.
Opportunity Sampling
Blue Card
Researchers rarely use random sampling: they have to rely on participants who are more easily accessible. Opportunity sampling means choosing people who are members of the target population and are available and willing to take part. Often friends of the researcher so they may not represent the target population very well. This could produce a biased sample. They might try to ‘help’ the researcher so their results could be unreliable. However it’s a quick and easy way to collect people.
Opportunity sampling occurs in Field experiments. E.g. we could have a confederate fall over at a football match to see how fans react. The sample of people would be football fans.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
54.
Define opportunity Sampling
Yellow card
Blue Card
Opportunity sampling means choosing people who are members of the target population and are available and willing to take part (e.g. friends and in field studies).
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
55.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Opportunity Sampling
Blue Card
Strength: Quick, cheap and easy compared to other methods
Weakness: As it only uses people who are available at the time it’s not likely to be representative and may have researcher bias
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
56.
Systematic Sampling
Blue Card
Systematic sampling means selecting participants at fixed intervals from the target population. Could be every third person from a class register or every 7th that comes out of a shop. Involves selecting every “nth” member of the target population. EG if the researcher decides that ‘n’ will be ‘7’ – every 7th person in the target population is selected. This is unbiased because the researcher cannot choose the individuals.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
57.
Define Systematic Sampling
yellow card
Systematic sampling means selecting participants at fixed intervals from the target population. ( “nth” member)
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
58.
Define Periodicity
yellow card
When carrying out systematic sampling its important that the potential participants are as randomised as possible. If you were choosing participants from a list of pupils in school arranged by class (yr 1, 2, 3,) you might end up picking out all the first years. This problem is called periodicity. It can be overcome in this example by mixing up all the names first.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
59.
Strengths and weaknesses of Systematic sampling
Blue Card
Strength/ advantage: Fairly cheap and fast. Simple procedure with no researcher bias.
Weakness/ limitation: Sample may not be representative. Researchers need to ensure that the list does not contain a hidden order (periodicity)
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
60.
Stratified sampling
Blue card
Provides a sample that is in proportion, in the relevant characteristic, to the target population. It’s the most complex of the sampling methods. The researcher must identify the subgroups in the target population and work out what proportion of that target population each group represents.
E.g. conducting a survey of women to ask questions about their attitude to childcare. You pick out the relevant characterises as the types of work women do, so you need to find out what proportion of females in the whole population are: self-employed, professions, manual workers. Unemployed etc. (You can get this info from census data). These categories must be represented in the same proportion in your sample. E.g. If 10% are self employed then in a sample of 50, 5 should be self employed and so on. To get the required number in each category, participants should be random-selected from the target population.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
61.
Define Stratified sampling
yellow card
To obtain this type of sampling, the different sub groups in the target population are identified; then people are randomly selected from these subgroups in proportion to their numbers in the target population.
Methods of control, data analysis and date presentation
62.
Strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling
Blue card
Strengths: Provides a very representative sample
Weaknesses: Very time consuming and expensive.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
63.
Increasing control in an experiment
Blue card
To be confident that the independent variable caused the dependent variable, the researcher must try to control all other aspects (or variables) in the experiment. There are ways that the research can increase control over the research environment and so have greater confidence that the IV has caused the DV.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
64.
Standardised procedures
Blue card
In order to control variables, all participants must undergo the same experience, except for the independent variable. To ensure that all participants have the same experience, researchers should ensure that they are all tested:
In the same place; with the same equipment and materials placed in the same way. Under the same conditions, e.g. level of lighting, noise and heat. At roughly the same time of day.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
65.
Random allocation and counterbalancing
Blue Card
An important issue is how participants in a study are put into the conditions of the experiment. When the design is independent groups the experimenter can use random allocation to achieve this. E.g. each participant takes a piece of paper from a bag that determines the condition they are in.
When the design is repeated measures (where participants take part in both conditions) this can cause order effects. In order to even these out counterbalancing is often used. Half of the participants complete condition 1 and then 2; the other half complete condition 2 and then 1. This shares the effects between the conditions,
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
66.
Controlling variables
Blue Card
If variables are not controlled, they may influence the results and so make them invalid. E.g. memory test for recall of words – if participants in 1 group saw the words but the participants in another group heard them read, it could account for the difference in the recall, rather than e.g. the way the words were organised. This is called a confounding variable. Another eg - traffic study-length of time to travel home bus or cycle – a confounding variable could be the fitness level of the cyclists.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
67.
What is a confounding variable?
Blue card
A confounding variable is an extraneous variable whose presence affects the variables being studied so that the results you get do not reflect the actual relationship between the variables under investigation. Not controlling procedures leads to the possibility of extraneous variables occurring and confounding the results.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
68.
Define extraneous variable
yellow card
A variable that is not the IV but might affect the DV if it is not controlled
E.g. in the music study experiment then EVs are things other than the presence or absence of music (IV) that might affect the learning score (DV). E.g. time allowed to do the test. If participants in the music present condition have more time than those in the music absent condition then that could affect the scores in the test. The solution would be to allocate the same amount of time for doing the test to both conditions.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
69.
Standardised instructions
Blue card
The information that is said or written for participants might affect the way they do the study and therefore their scores or performances. Participants should be given identical instructions in exactly the same way. This is particularly important if the research requires them to perform a task. Sometimes instructions are written down, to safeguard against bias. But the problem is that some participants might have difficulty reading or understanding. Instructions need to be clear, simple and unambiguous.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
70.
Ways to standardise instructions
Blue card
Standardising instructions in the following ways:
Briefing
Standardised instructions
Debriefing
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
71.
Briefing:
Blue card
Briefing
This is what is said to encourage a person to agree to participate. It contains ethical information about consent, anonymity, the right to withdraw and so on.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
72.
Standardised instructions
Blue card
Standardised instructions are clear instructions about exactly what the participant will have to do in the experiment.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
73.
Debriefing
Blue card
Debriefing
This explains the study in detail so that each participant is absolutely sure of the aim of the study, why they were doing what they were doing in the condition(s). Ethical issues are addressed again, especially the opportunity for the participant to withdraw their data if they feel unhappy about their performance.
Standard Procedures, controlling variables and instructions to participants
74.
Randomisation
Blue card
Another technique used in practical work is called randomisation. This means making sure that, where necessary, there are no biases in procedures.
E.g. in an experiment where a list of 20 words has been constructed for participants to learn. These words are of equal difficulty because they are all everyday nouns with six letters. The experiment has to decide the order in which they should be presented to the participants. Instead of the experiment choosing the order, randomisation is used. All 20 words are written on separate pieces of paper and put in a bag. The first word is pulled out and written down at the top of the list. This is repeated with all 20 words. The order of the words has now been randomised. Each word has an equal chance of being selected first for the list and experimenter left the final order of the words to chance.
Statistics/ calculations
75.
Use of and Types of calculations
Blue Card
Once the investigation has been conducted we need to look at the data that have been collected. For quantative data (numerical data) there are various calculations that can be used to analyse and provide some meaning at the end of a study. These include:
mean
median,
mode
range
percentages.
Statistics/ calculations
76.
The mean
Blue card
The mean is often referred to as the average.
Add up all of the scores in a condition and divide by the number of participants in the condition.
E.g. in a study of 20 people standing on one leg for as long they could – you would add up all of their standing on one leg times and divide by 20 to get the mean standing on one leg time.
The mean is useful because it makes use of all the scores. Sometimes though you can get a score that’s different to the others (an anomaly) and extreme. E.g. one person gets 0. This is known as anomalous. This can really mess up the mean.
Statistics/ calculations
77.
The Median
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The median is calculated by looking at the middle score in a set of data. First you have to place all of the scores in the order of value. In an odd number of figures the mean is the middle number. In an even number of figures the mean is the mean of the middle two numbers (i.e. take the two middle numbers add them together and divide by 2).
Statistics/ calculations
78.
The mode
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Mode is French for fashion. The mode is the most fashionable number. The most frequently score that occurs.
Statistics/ calculations
79.
The range
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The range is a measure of dispersion. This means the difference between the highest and the lowest score in a condition.
Statistics / calculations
80.
Percentages
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If we want to work out the percentage for each participant we would divide the score they achieved by the total maximum score and then multiply by 100. E.g. for 45 out of 60 – we divide 45 by 60 x 100 = 75%
Statistics/ caluculations
81.
Graphical representations: Bar charts
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Once the data has been calculated, it is often useful to present it as a graph to make it easier for people to interpret and understand. A bar chart is one way to display data in categories. To make a bar chart.
- Plot the categories along the horizontal (X) axis
- Plot the frequencies (how often something occurs) along the vertical (Y) axis.
- Don’t let the bars or rectangles touch each other!
- Arrange them in ascending / descending order.
- Label both axes.
- Give an appropriate title
Statistics/ calculations
82.
Graphical representations:
Line graphs
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Once the data has been calculated, it is often useful to present it as a graph to make it easier for people to interpret and understand. A line graph is often used to display data that are connected to each other to show the relationships between each point.
- List the categories along the horizontal axis (X)
- List the frequencies (how often something occurs) along the vertical (Y) axis.
- Plot the scores using a dot according to the frequencies
- Join the dots together
- Arrange them in ascending / descending order.
- Label both axes.
- Give an appropriate title
Ethical considerations
83.
Zimbardo- The Stanford prison Experiment.
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The experiment had to be stopped after 6 days because the ‘guards’ became sadistic and the prisoners became withdrawn and distressed.
Ethics
84.
What are ethical considerations?
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Ethical issues are points of concern about what is morally right – desirable standards of behaviour we use towards others. If we behave ethically, then we treat others with respect and have concern for their well-being.
Psychologists have legal and moral responsibilities to those who help them in their research: every individual has rights and these must be respected and protected. Participants put their trust in researchers. If their trust is betrayed this discredits the profession. The BPS has published guidelines specifying ethical concerns and how they must be addressed.
Ethics
85.
Define ethical considerations
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Ethical issues are points of concern about what is morally right – desirable standards of behaviour we use towards others. Psychologists have legal and moral responsibilities to those who help them in their research: every individual has rights and these must be respected and protected. The BPS has published guidelines specifying ethical concerns and how they must be addressed.
Ethics
86.
Code of ethics
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The Code of Ethics and Conduct of the British Psychological Society (2006) underpin the activities of all practising psychologists, researchers and psychology students. Therefore you, as a student, need to follow the BPS guidelines in everything you do. www.bps.org.uk
Ethics
87.
Competentce
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Psychologists should only give advice if they are qualified to do so. Gcse students are not.
Ethics
88.
Respect
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Ethical considerations: Psychologists should respect people as individuals and avoid unfair or prejudiced practices.
Ethics
89.
Ethical considerations:
The Invasion of personal privacy
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The privacy of participants must be protected. This includes confidentiality, observations and the right to withdraw if participants feel uncomfortable. If people are being observed in a public place their privacy should be respected.
Ethics
90.
Ethical considerations: Confidentiality
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Participants, and the data gained from them, must be kept anonymous unless they give their full consent. It must not be possible to identity participants from any reporting of the research, such as in an academic articles or a newspaper article.
91.
Ethical Considerations:
Observations
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If participants are observed in public, in circumstances where anyone could observe them, privacy is not an issue. Having said this, if the observer is obvious to those being watched, perhaps taking notes, this may cause discomfort or distress, which is not acceptable. However when observers are hidden, then privacy is violated and this contravenes the BPS guidelines.
92.
Ethical Considerations:
Right to withdraw/ Withdrawel
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When participants agree to take part in research they do not know the extent to which you will encroach upon their feelings, emotions or sense of what is appropriate. Therefore researchers must gain informed consent and also tell participants that they can withdraw at any time during the research if they wish to do so.
Participants should also be reminded of their right to withdraw if it is a long study or if they appear to be distressed. By reminding them of the right to withdraw you are stressing that they are under no obligation to continue and can act to protect themselves at any time if they feel uncomfortable. If participants initially agree and then decide to withdraw that agreement at the end of the study or after they have been debriefed, all data and information about them must be deleted from the research. Participates can withdraw themselves and their data.
Ethics
93.Minimising distress and deception
- Distress
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Researchers have responsibility to protect the participants from harm. They must ensure that those taking part in research will not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means that you must not embarrass, upset, frighten, offend or harm participants. E.g. showing gruesome pictures could upset people; offend their culture; putting them in physical harm etc. … Psychologists need to consider whether the benefits of the research can be said to outweigh the possible costs to participants in that research. The risk of harm should be no greater that the risk from everyday life.
Ethics
94.
Minimising distress:
- Deception
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Psychologists should behave with honesty and fairness in all their interactions with people. Avoid deception, which means people should not be misled about the research. The problem is that deception is sometimes necessary to avoid demand characteristics affecting the results. Some research would be impossible if everything was revealed at the start. The guidelines say that participants must be deceived as little as possible, and that the deception must not cause distress. * If you have gained participants’ informed consent by deception, then they will have agreed to take part without knowing what they were consenting to.
The true nature of the research should be revealed at the earliest possible opportunity, or at least during debriefing. If serious deception has been used, the researcher must ensure that the participant understands why and feels comfortable about their part in it.
Ethics
95.
Informed consent and debriefing
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Before the study begins, the researcher must outline to the participant what the research entails, and then ask if they consent to take part. If the participants are children, someone who is responsible for them (parent/ guardian) must be told what is involved, and they must give consent. The researcher must still ask the child if they’re willing to take part, and the child must agree.
However, it is not always possible to gain informed consent. This is acceptable as long as what happens to the participants is something that could just as easily have happened to them in everyday life. (E.g. observing people in a bus queue – they could be observed by anyone so informed consent is not necessary).
Ethics
96.
Debriefing
Participants must be thoroughly debriefed at the end of the study. They must be given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained. They must be assured that their results are confidential. They must be told if they have been deceived and it must be justified to them. They must be asked if they have any questions and these should be answered honestly and as fully as possible. Participants may have experienced distress thorough their experience, perhaps why they hear they have been deceived or if the procedure caused them anxiety, embarrassment or loses of self-esteem. It is the researcher’s responsibility to check on the participants’ physical and psychological well-being as part of the debriefing process. If necessary they should be followed up to ensure there are no ill effects later on.
Use our study and apply this information on ethical issues. EG look at the instructions we produced. Identity the ethical issues you need to consider and add these to your briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing.
