Non-verbal Communication Flashcards
Define key terms:
Tone of voice
This links to the study of ARGYLE, ALKEMA AND GILMOUR
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Tone of voice: the way words are spoken to convey emotion
ARGYLE, ALKEMA AND GILMOUR:
Aim: To see if the tone of voice has an effect when interpreting a verbal message.
Method: Different groups listed to different messages in either friendly or hostile tones. Participants either heard a friendly message in a hostile tone or a hostile message in a friendly tone.
Results: It was found that the tone of voice had 5 times the effect of the verbal message.
Conclusion: Tone of voice is very important in how verbal messages are interpreted.
Evaluation:
▪Low ecological validity as it’s not an everyday task.
▪Conducted in artifical conditions.
▪Helps us to understand how some people might struggle getting verbal messages across if their words contradict their tone of voice.
Define key terms:
Paralinguistics
Intonation
Emphasis
This links to the study of DAVITZ AND DAVITZ
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Paralinguistics: vocal features that accompany speech.
Intonation: inflection in the voice when speaking.
Emphasis: giving prominence on some words more than others.
DAVITZ AND DAVITZ:
Aim: To see if the effect of paralinguistics on the assessment of emotion.
Method: Participants were asked to listern to tape recordings and assess the speakers’ emotions from the paralinguistic cues: tone of voice, emphasis and intonation.
Results: There was a higher accuracy in recognising affection, amusement, disgust and fear.
Conclusion: Paralinguistics have great importance when judging emotion.
Evaluation:
▪Low ecological validity as it’s not an everday task.
▪Conducted in artificial conditions.
▪Participant variables.
Define key terms:
Eye contact
Pupil dilation
This links to the study of KENDON
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Eye contact: when two people are looking at each other’s eyes at the same time.
Pupil dilation: when the pupils in the eyes expand to look large.
KENDON:
Aim: To see how eye movements effect the flow of conversation.
Method: Participants were put in pairs and asked to have a conversation and get to know each other. Their conversations were secretly watched.
Results: As one person began to speak they briefly looked away and as they were about to finish talking they gave the other person a prolonged look indicating it was their turn to speak. If they didn’t give them a prolonged look there was a pause in the conversation.
Conclusion: Eye movements signal turn taking in conversation.
Evaluation:
▪Low ecological validity as they are unnatural tasks.
▪Participants may behave differently in a normal conversation, this is artificial.
▪Help us to understand how to make conversations run more smoothly.
This links to the study of ARGYLE MUST KNOW BY NAME!
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
ARGYLE:
Aim: To see how interrupting eye contact affects conversation.
Method: Pairs of participants were observed having conversations. In half the conversations, one person was wearing dark glasses so the other person couldn’t make eye contact.
Results: In the pairs where one person wore dark glasses, there were more pauses and interruptions than the pairs who weren’t wearing dark glasses.
Conclusion: Eye contact is important in ensuring the smooth flow of conversation.
Evaluation:
▪Quite realistic but still has some low ecological validity as people don’t wear dark glasses all the time.
▪Helps us to understand how to make conversations run more smoothly.
▪Supports functions of eye contact.
This links to the study of HESS
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
HESS
Aim: To see the effect of pupil dilation on emotion.
Method: Participants were shown two almost identical pictures of the same girl and asked which one they found more attractive. The difference was the girl’s pupils were more dilated in one picture.
Results: Most of the participants thought the girl with dilated pupils was more attractive but couldn’t say why.
Conclusion: Pupil dilation has an unconscious but powerful effect on emotion.
Evaluation:
▪Low ecological validty as it’s an unnatural task.
▪A girl’s piccture so may only apply to people attracted to women.
▪Helps us understand why eye make-up is so popular as making the eyes look darker and larger is an important unconscious signal for attraction.
This links to the study of SACKHEIM MUST KNOW BY NAME!
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
SACKHEIM
Aim: To look at the relationship between facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain.
Method: Picture’s of people’s faces showing different emotions were cut in half. New pictures were created with one half face and it’s reflection which were then shown to participants and they were asked which they preferred.
Results: Most of the participants said they preferred the left side and its reflection because they thought it looked ‘warmer’.
Conclusion: The left side of the face seems to express emotion much more than the right.
Evaluation:
▪Looking at still images is an unnatural task.
▪Harder to judge a 2D image than a 3D person’s face.
▪People’s facial expressions in the real world change constantly.
Define key terms:
Gesture
This links to the study of LYNN AND MYNIER
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Gesture: a form of non-verbal communication where information is conveyed by either deliberate or unconscious movement of parts of the body.
LYNN AND MYNIER
Aim: To see the effect of gestures used by waiters and waitresses on the tipping behaviour of the customers in the restaurant.
Method: While taking orders from seated customers, waiters and waitresses eithe squatted or stood upright. Squatting makes more eye contact possible.
Results: When the waiters and waitresses squatted they received larger tips compared to those stood upright.
Conclusion: The gesture of squatting down near a seated customer to take an order will have a positive effect on tipping behaviour.
Evaluation:
▪It’s not the gesture itself but the amount of eye contact made which results in a higher tip.
▪High ecological validity as being waited on in a restaurant is realistic.
▪The mood the customers are in could result in a higher or lower tip.
Define key terms:
Postural echo
This links to the study of McGINLEY
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evalutaion?
Key terms:
Postural echo: mirroring another person’s body position.
McGINLEY
Aim: To see the effect of postural echo when having a conversation.
Method: A confederate of the experimenter approached individuals in a social setting and had conversations with them. In half the meeting, the confederate echoed the posture of the people he was talking to and didn’t echo the posture of the other people in the other half of the meetings. The experimenter then asked the individuals what they thought of the confederate.
Results: When postural echo was used, the people liked the confederate and thought they got on well together whereas they didn’t when postural echo wasn’t used.
Conclusion: Postural echo gives an unconscious message of friendliness.
Evaluation:
▪The confederate knew about the experiment whereas the individuals didn’t which is deception and seen as unethical.
▪Participant variables as the confederate may just get on with one person better than the other.
▪Being asked what they thought of a person is slightly unrealistic.
Define key terms:
Body posture
Closed posture
Open posture
This links to the study of McGINLEY, LEFEVRE AND McGINLEY
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Body posture: the positioning of the body, often regarded as a non-verbal communication signal.
Closed posture: positioning the arms and legs so they are folded and/or crossing the legs. Feeling uncomfortable, unhappy.
Open posture: positioning the arms so they aren’t folded and not crossing the legs. Feeling comfortable, happy, friendly.
McGINLEY, LEFEVRE AND McGINLEY
Aim: To see thhe effect of open and closed posture when having a conversation.
Method: A confederate approached individuals and had a conversation with them. In half the conversations, the confederate had an open posture and a cloded posture in the other half. After, the experimenter ased the inidviduals what they thought of the confederate.
Results: When showing an open posture, the confederate seemed friendly and attractive and the opposite when showing a closed posture.
Conclusion: The posture that someone has will make a difference to how much they are liked.
Evaluation:
▪The individuals didn’t know about the experiment whereas the confederate did which is deception and seen as unethical.
▪High ecological validity as having an open or closed posture is somerthing somebody has everyday.
▪Socially desirable participants.
Define key terms:
Touch
This links to the study of FISHER, RHYTTING AND HESLIN
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Touch: a form of non-verbal communication in which information is conveyed by physical contact between people.
FISHER, RHYTTING AND HESLIN
Aim: To see the effect of touch on people’s attitudes.
Method: Female students in a library were handed books by the librarian who was a confederate. Half of the students were touched briefly on the hand by the librarian when handed the books and the others weren’t.
Results: When questioned later, the students who had been touched had a more positive attitude towards the library and librarian. However, the students were not aware they had been touched.
Conclusion: Touch will have an unconscious and positive effect on attitudes.
Evaluation:
▪Only experimented on females so may not apply to everybody.
▪The females didn’t know about the experiment but the confederate did so it’s unethical.
▪High ecological validity because you may be touched on an everday basis without realising.
Define key terms:
Personal space
Sex differences
Individual differences
This links to the study of WILLIS
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
Key terms:
Personal space: the distance we keep between ourselves and other people in our everyday lives.
Sex differences: differences due to being either male or female.
Individual differences: factors that make one person different to another person such as personality or age.
WILLIS
Aim: To see if the difference in age affects personal space.
Method: Willis observed almost 800 people in social situations.
Results: The closer in age people were, the closer they tended to stand together.
Conclusion: Age difference affects how close people will stand to one another.
Evaluation:
▪High ecological validity as they are observed in a natural scenario.
▪People didn’t know about the experiment so is slightly unethical.
▪Other factors which affect personal space could have been what affected the participants.
This links to the study of WILLIAMS
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of this study?
And evaluation?
WILLIAMS
Aim: To see if personality has an effect on personal space.
Method: College students were given a personality test to see if they were extrovert (outgoing and sociable) or introvert (quiet and reserved). They then went to receive their grades from a tutor. The observers noted where they chose to sit.
Results: Introverts sat further away from their tutors than extroverts.
Conclusion: Whether someone is extrovert or introvert will affect their use of personal space.
Evaluation:
▪High ecological validity as it’s an everyday task that students see their tutors.
▪Students didn’t know about the experiment so is slightly unethical.
▪Only used college students so isn’t representative of everybody.
