Non-Timed Exam 1 Flashcards
Hypertonic
- has a greater solute concentration than its surroundings
- water moves into the cell to equalize the differing solute concentrations
- the cell is diluted and swollen
- the cell is ready to burst or shrink (cytolysis)
Hypotonic
- has a lower solute concentration than its surrounding
- water moves out of the cell to equalize the differing solute concentrations
- the cell becomes more concentrated and dries up/swells up (plasmolysis)
Isotonic
- the solute concentration of the cell is equal to that of the environment
- the cell stays the same size owing to no net movement of the water in or out of the cell
- no solute gradient (normal)
Electron Transport Chain
- electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions
- coupled with the transfer of protons (H+) across a membrane
- electrochemical proton gradient (drives ATP)
- final acceptor of electrons during aerobic respiration is O2
- found in the inner mitochondrial membrane, thylakoids within chloroplasts, and plasma membrane of bacteria
Blood is composed of:
- Plasma
- Buffy coat (WBC’s and platelets-thrombocytes)
- Red blood cells
2 Groups of White Blood Cells:
- Granulocytes- have granules in their cytoplasm. They include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
- Agranulocytes- do not have granules in their cytoplasm. They include monocytes and lymphocytes
Podocytes
cells in the Bowman’s capsule in the kidneys that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus
Plasma contains:
- water
- proteins
- nutrients
- hormones
Buffy coat contains:
- white blood cells
platelets
Hematocrit
Red blood cells
Vestigial structure
a structure that belongs to a species that has maintained its morphology throughout generations but has lost its function
ex: appendix: a finger-like tube connected to the cecum, a part of the large intestine in the digestive tract
Spleen
- acts as a filter for blood as part of the immune system
- recycles old red blood cells, in addition to storing platelets and white blood cells
- helps fight certain kinds of bacteria that cause pneumonia and meningitis
Colon
- a component of the large intestine
- functions to reabsorb fluids and minerals from the digested food products
- processes and expels waste products (feces) from the body
- the bacterial biome present here will produce essential vitamins such as vitamin B and K
Pancreas
- converts food that we eat into fuel for the cells in our body
2 Main functions of the Pancreas
- Exocrine function: helps in digestion
2. Endocrine function: regulates blood sugar
Larynx
a portion of the respiratory tract containing the vocal cords which manipulates pitch and volume
- essential for phonation
R- selected species
- smaller animals who undergo the J- shaped or exponential growth scheme
- invoke minimal parental care while having a large amount of offspring
- most offspring have low survival rates
- r selection predominates due tot he ability to reproduce quickly
K- selected species
- have a large body size
- long life expectancy
- production of fewer offspring
- requires extensive parental care until they mature
Photosynthesis
- takes place in the chloroplasts
2 stages of Photosynthesis:
1st stage: begins with light reaction- energy from sunlight is absorbed by the pigment chlorophyll
- energy temporarily transferred to ATP and NADPH
- water is used to produce oxygen
- location - thylakoid space
- products: NADPH, ATP, O2
2nd stage: CO2 is used to produce glucose
- location- stroma
- energy is temporarily transferred to ATP and NADPH
- process occurs in the Calvin cycle
- the Calvin cycle uses CO2 and the energy is stored in ATP and NADPH to make glucose
- products: ATP, NADPH, CO2
Plastids
- only in plant cells
- double membrane “sac-like” organelles involved in either the manufacture or storage of food
- differentiate into several forms, depending on which function they play in the cell
ex: chloroplasts
Chloroplasts
- specialized in photosynthesis
- contain the internal membrane system
Vesicles
membrane-bound structures filled with inorganic and organic molecules, along with water to support the organelle
Mitochondria
involved in ATP (energy) production
Cytoskeleton
- gives a cell its shape
- offers support
- facilitates movement through microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
Cytoplasm
a jelly-like fluid made mostly of water that contains all organelles in the cell
Stages of Pre- embryonic development
- A zygote results after the fertilization of an egg and sperm cell that occurs inside the oviduct (fallopian tube)
- Upon fertilization, the zygote will begin dividing via mitosis, where it forms the morula
- As the morula travels towards the uterus, the cells continue to divide until it forms a hollow ball of cells called the blastula with a liquid-filled cavity called the blastocoel. NOTE: in humans, the blastula is nicknamed blastocyst
- The blastocyst then implants itself within the endometrium (the inner uterine lining) for further embryological development to occur
Autosomal dominance
- all affected individuals must have at least 1 affected parent
- if 2 parents are unaffected, all offspring must be unaffected (homozygous recessive)
- if 2 parents are affected, they may have offspring who are unaffected (if parents are heterozygous)
Autosomal recessive
- if 2 parents show a trait, all children must also show the trait (homozygous recessive)
- an affected individual may have 2 normal parents (if parents are both heterozygous carriers)
X-linked dominance
- if a male shows a trait, so must all daughters as well as his mother
- the disorder is more common in females
- it is not possible to conclusively confirm sex- linkage from pedigree charts
X-linked recessive
- if a female shows the trait, so must all sons as well as her father
- the disorder is more common in males
- it is not possible to conclusively confirm sex- linkage from pedigree charts
To find highest melting point in DNA
In DNA, the greater amount of hydrogen bonding there is, the higher the melting point
AT= 2 GC= 3
Gel electrophoresis
a biological lab technique used to separate charged molecules, such as DNA fragments according to size
- DNA fragments are negatively charged bc of the phosphate groups in their sugar-phosphate backbone
- they move towards the positive electrode where smaller fragments move through the gel faster than larger ones (restriction enzymes)
Centrifugation
used to separate cells or large molecules from a solution through the use of a rotor
PCR
technique used to make multiple copies of a specific DNA region
Vortexing
used to mix biological samples
SDS-PAGE
used to separate and characterize a protein, NOT DNA
Xylem
- a component of a vascular bundle
- transports water and minerals up plants and provides mechanical support
- mainly composed of dead cells that still have intact cell walls
- has 2 cell walls: the outer wall lacks pits to maintain water volume
- two types of xylem cells: vessel elements and Tracheids
Phloem
- part of the vascular bundle
- transports nutrients
Sieve- tube members
cells that make up a phloem
Radicles
parts of seeds that later develop into the roots of the plants
Cork cambium
a layer that grows laterally in plant stems during secondary growth to create the periderm layer
Keystone species
species upon which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if they were removed, the ecosystem would change drastically
- a dominant predator whose removal allows a prey population to explode and often decreases the overall density
- dramatic shift is seen
ex: beaver
Beta- Oxidation (Fatty acid oxidation)
- catabolic breakdown of fatty acids to Acetyl CoA
- Fatty acids become oxidized into FADH2, NADH, and Acetyl CoA
- enzymes required for Beta- oxidation are found in the mitochondria
- newly generated Acetyl- CoA molecules can enter the citric acid cycle, and ETC chain to produce ATP
Skeletal system
- stores minerals that are required by the body to properly function
2 minerals that make up the bone matrix:
1- calcium
2- phosphorus
These minerals can be released back into the bloodstream when bone resorption occurs. Bone resorption is the breakdown of bone by osteoclasts. When blood calcium levels are low, parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released and stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone to release calcium levels return to normal, negative feedback inhibits the release of PTH. When blood calcium or phosphorus levels are high, calcitonin is released to inhibit bone resorption
Decreased calcium levels:
bone matrix is a pool (reservoir) for calcium. Excessive bone resorption leads to excessive release of calcium minerals from the bone matrix, which causes calcium levels to increase
Increased parathyroid hormone levels:
excessive bone resorption leads to increased blood calcium levels, which inhibits the release of parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone levels should not increase in response to increased calcium
Decreased calcitonin levels:
increased blood calcium and phosphorus levels stimulate the release of calcitonin. Calcitonin levels should not decrease in response to increase calcium and phosphorus
Imprinting
- phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and independent of the consequence of behavior
- occurs during a short time frame, known as the “critical period” which occurs around birth (newborn)
Innate behaviors:
any behavior that an organism performs without any prior experience or learning that is innate to that species
Fixed- action patterns
when an organism undergoes a series of actions until completion, even if the stimuli is not present anymore whilst the action is occurring
Observational learning
when an organism learns about a concept by observing another organism performing a given task
Habituation
when an organism gets used to a stimulus and being to stop reacting to the given stimuli
The liver functions in:
- drug and other chemical detoxifications, where it releases the by-products into the intestine as bile in order to be excreted
- if the liver is injured, it will no longer chemically modify wastes and release them into bile
- regulation of blood glucose levels
- metabolism of macromolecules (carbs, fats)
- converting ammonia to urea prior to its expulsion from the kidneys
- it is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound that helps the breakdown of fats
- Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids
- The gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver which is moved to the small intestine to complete digestion
Kidney
a tube that connects the bladder to the outer environment. Thus, it facilitates the expulsion of urine from the bladder
Functions of skin:
- barriers against outside pathogens
- evaporative cooling
- vitamin D synthesis
- thermal insulation via hair follicles
Order of stages of Pre- embryonic development:
Zygote> cleavage> morula> bastocyst> implantation
Gases in Earth’s atmosphere:
- CH4
- H2
- H2O
- NH3
A student wishes to conduct an experiment where he leaves two identical plates of yeast growing in a sugar solution. He seals one of the plates and incubates both plates overnight. Which of the following substances would be found in the sealed plate but not in the open plate?
- When we seal the plates, we are effectively depleting the oxygen content. Thus, the yeast in the sealted plate will undergo anaerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration in yeasts and plants yields different products than aerobic respiration in animals cells
In anaerobic conditions, organisms such as bacteria, plants and fungi, (i.e yeast) undergo “alcohol fermentation” to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol.
Animal cells will produce carbon dioxide and lactic acid
Fermentation
- anaerobic process for breaking down glucose, which begins with glycolysis
- the pyruvate made in glycolysis does not continue through oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the ETC
- regenerate the electron carrier NAD+
- in alcohol fermentation: NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol
Glucose
produced by photosynthesis
Methanol
produced from the synthesis of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
Lactic acid
- produced in anaerobic respiration when oxygen is not present
- lactic acid is not produced in the pathway for yeasts because it is in the mammalian anaerobic pathway
Pyruvate
NAD+ produced through fermentation is used in glycolysis which produces pyruvate
Parthenogenesis
- a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization ex: reptiles like Komodo dragon and several fish species
Binary fission
- process that occurs in unicellular organisms (such as prokaryotes, mitochondria, chloroplasts)
- causes replicated DNA to migrate to opposite ends of a cell, which is followed by a spetum formation to separate the cell into two
Regeneration
when a pice of an organism breaks off. It can regenerate the broken piece or a new organism is regenerated from the broken piece
Amphimixis
another term for fertilization whoch results in a zygote
Epimorphosis
a process when fully differentiated cells re-obtain stem cell- like features, allowing the organism to re-grow a given body part
Adaptive radiation
process in which multiple diverse species evolve rapidly from one ancestral species
ex: galapagos finches
Reversible non- competitive inhibitors
- bind temporarily to an enzyme location that is not the active site
Irreversible inhibitor
interact and bind to the enzyme via covalent bonds and prevent the enzyme from working permanently
Zymogen
also known as a pro-zymogen, is a precursor protein that is inactive until some sort of critical modification occurs
Reversible competitive inhibitor
have similar substrate shapes and compete at the level of the active site. Both of which non- covalently with the enzyme
Substrate
is the protein or element that binds to the enzyme
