Non-Human Animals Flashcards
Non-human animals
When considering psychological research with non-human animals we are weighing up the conflict between wider benefits for society and potential harm to animals used. Also concerned with question of if study of non-human animals has any relevance to psychologists.
2 important points =
- Your focus must be on psychological research rather than use of animals for cosmetic testing.
- Your focus must be on objective, evidence-based arguments rather than emotionally filled work.
BPS guidelines for psychologists working with animals
British Psychological Society publishes guidelines for research with animals. Psychologists are advised to:
- Conform to current legislation.
- Consider the 3Rs.
- Choose species that are suited to the research purpose.
- Be aware of animals’ previous experience.
- Remember responsibilities extend to care of animals when not being studied including companions for social animals.
- Pay special attention to any procedure that may cause pain and ensure that procedures are carefully evaluated and alternatives considered.
- Consider food intake so normal food intake and metabolic requirements are met.
3Rs: Replace, Reduce, Refine
in 2000 Home Office issued guidance on principle of 3Rs, first proposed by Russell and Birch in 1959.
Researchers should seek wherever possible to:
- Replace animal research with suitable alternatives like brain scanning.
- Reduce number of animals used.
- Refine procedures so they cause less suffering.
A national group = The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction Animals, set up to encourage, research and support use of 3Rs through research and education.
The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (3 aspects)
Requires research with non-human animals is only permitted by licensed researchers on licensed projects, licenses only granted by Home Office if:
- Knowledge to be gained from any investigation justifies harm/distress to animal participants.
- Research cannot be done using non-animal methods.
- Any discomfort/suffering is kept to a minimum by appropriate use of anaesthetics/painkillers.
Act only relates to vertebrate animals and only those more than halfway through gestation period, invertebrate animal octopus was added in 1993.
Primates, cats, dogs and horses have additional protection.
Comparative psychology
The study of non-human animals with intention of making comparisons to humans.
E.g. Harlow 1959 placed infant monkeys in cage with 2 wire mothers - one with feeding bottle, one wrapped in soft cloth. Monkeys chose to spend most time with cloth covered mother showing importance of contact comfort rather than feeding.
Monkeys developed into emotionally maladjusted adults despite contact comfort - they couldn’t socialise with other monkeys and rejected their own infants. BUT research had very important influence understanding infant emotional development - recognition feeding alone wasn’t basis of bond between caregiver and infant.
Should be acknowledged some comparative research may be applied to benefit animals’ lives. E.g. Harlow’s research can be used to improve lives of monkeys in captivity/breeding programmes for species in danger of extinction.
Ethological psychology
Ethologists seek to study animals in way that doesn’t affect behaviour, observing animals in natural environment with little interference.
Lorenz = arranged some gosling eggs to hatch so he was first moving thing they saw. They followed Lorenz everywhere as if he was their mother = had important influence on understanding emotional development.
Fossey 1983 observed gorillas in natural habitat to reach greater understanding of their social relationships, her work made famous through film Gorillas in the Mist.
Pavolv and Skinner used animals in conditioning research. Can be argued research cannot be generalised to humans, subsequent behaviourist techniques on humans has demonstrated validity of basic principles.
Use as a therapeutic device
- Presence of pets shown to reduce stress. Allen 2003 = presence of pets reduced blood pressure in children reading aloud, buffered elderly against life event stresses and reduced cardiovascular risk.
- Different kinds of therapeutic approach aims to enable disturbed/socially isolated people to learn how to trust and form relationships with other people = from attachments. Animal assisted therapy can use dogs, cats, horses, dolphins, fish and hamsters as behavioural facilitators.
- Bond between client and animal developed through physical interaction like grooming/feeding animals. Later verbal interactions encouraged like commanding to sit etc. Beginning of social bond with client and animal. Ultimate aim = transfer social skills learned with animals to relationships with humans. Therapist can use animal-client relationship as means of exploring sensitive issues and discussing painful experiences.
Evaluation
Some studies = encouraging evidence for use of animal assisted therapy, found all studies reported beneficial effects for emotional problems including schizophrenia, developmental disabilities and Down’s syndrome.
Others have criticised. A review of 14 studies of equine therapy done and identified number of serious methodological issues - sample sizes small, no control groups, not randomly allocated to treatment groups etc. Any benefits could be due to having special attention from therapist rather than animal interaction.
Speciesism
Singer 1975 = discrimination on basis of membership of a species is no different from racial or gender discrimination = use of animals is an example of speciesism similar to racism or sexism.
Gray 1991 = we have a special duty of care to humans, therefore speciesism isn’t the same as racism etc.
Animal rights
Reagan 1984 = there are no circumstances which animal research is acceptable.
Singer’s view = utilitarian one = whatever produces greater good for greater number of people is ethically acceptable = if animal research can alleviate pain and suffering - it’s justifiable.
Reagan’s view = absolutist - animals have a right to be treated with respect and should never be used in research.
‘Animals rights’ argument can be challenged by examining the concept of rights - having rights is dependent on having responsibilities in society as citizens. Can lead to saying animals don’t have any responsibilities = they don’t have any rights.
Facts
Can’t stop all animal research e.g. British law = any new drug must be tested on at least 2 different species of live mammal. This research inevitably results in some degree of pain and suffering for animals involved. BUT new drugs allow people with mental illness e.g. to lead relatively ‘normal’ lives = protecting them and protecting society.
