NMSK Flashcards
Hypo-
Under or below
hyper-
above
Epi-
upon, on, over, near, at, before, after
supra-
above or after
sub-
under
osteo-
bone
chondr-
cartilage
endo-
within
ecto-
outer, external
-cyte
relating to a cell
-itis
inflammation or a disease characterised by inflammation
-ectomy
exision (surgical removal)
Terms used for describing moving closer and away from the middle of the body
lateral and medial
terms used for going towards the topside or belly side
Ventral and dorsal (belly side and topside respectively)
What terms are used to describe being close to the beginning or end of the structure (like a arm or leg)
proximal and distal
terms used to describe going towards the heard or towards the tail
cranial and caudal
what terms are used to describe the palm or the anterior surface of the hand/leg and what is its opposite term
palmar and dorsal
terms used to describe the bottom and top of the foot
Plantar and dorsal (respectively)
terms used to describe the front or back of the brain
rostral and caudal respectively
what term is used to describe being located or directed towards the axis and is located or directed away from the axis
Axial and abaxial respectively
what plane runs parallel to the back
Dorsal plane
what plane divides the body into top and bottom parts?
transverse plane
what plane divides the body into right and left halves? and what is this plane specifically called when the parts are exactly equal?
sagittal plan and median plane respectively
What is the tube of solid bone called that surrounds the central cavity filled with bone marrow (fat in older animals)? also what is the name of this part?
Cortex and medulla respectively
What are the 3 parts of the bone in terms of sections? and which regions are these?
Epiphysis - rounded end
Metaphysis - flared region
Diaphysis - shaft
Metaphysis is adjacent to epiphysis
What are the two types of bone?
Cortical (compact) bone and cancellous (trabecular spongy) bone
What are visceral bones?
These are bony formations in soft tissue rather than being part of the skeleton like the os penis bone and os cordis (in the heart of ruminants). os means bone in latin.
What are the two classification categories for describing where bones come from and what do they mean?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton - bones forming the axis or centre of the animal
Appendicular skeleton - regions that are attached.
What are the two types of bone development and what do they mean?
chondral ossification and membranous ossification
chondral ossification - bones ossify from a cartilage precursor (most limb bones)
Membranous ossification - bones ossify directly from mesenchymal cells (scapula, most bones of the skull)
Bones can be classified on how they developed. Where would you find these two types of bones formed from these processes in terms of weight bearing and why?
Chondral ossification - found in load bearing areas. Often have specific fail/ fracture configuration.
Membranous ossification - found in non-load bearing areas. These bones are generally lighter and less dense.
What are the 5 types of bones in terms of shape and what does each individual term mean?
long b - inc femur, tibia and fibula
short b - inc tarsals and carpals
flat b - protect internal organs or provide a connection point for your muscles
sesamoid b - small, round bones that are embedded within tendons or ligaments
irregular b - unique shapes and can’t be classed as the others such as vertebrae
What type of bone is adapted for resisting compression when loaded and acts a lever during movement and resists tension during muscle contraction and how does it do this?
Long bones.
- Main part of bone is a column providing strength
-expanded ends providing transfer of load
what type of bone is found in groups and why? and why is one of its surface always non-articular?
short bones.
They are found in groups to disseminate forces through joints
One surface is always non-articular for ligament attachment and vasculature
What type of bone has jutting processes and what are the point of these?
Irregular bones have various jutting processes for muscle and ligament attachment.
What type of bone act as attachments for soft tissues and protect underlying tissues?
flat bones
what is the name for bones that contain air sacs?
pneumatic bones
Flat bones of the skull- form the paranasal sinuses.
what is the function of sesamoid bones and how are these attached?
provide additional strength and reduce wear over joints. Protect and redirect tendons.
They are held in place by surrounding tendons or ligaments (patella, fetlock, navicular bone).
What is the name of the fibrous connective tissue membrane consisting of two layers regarding bones: an outer fibrous and inner cellular layer? and what does it do?
Periosteum.
supplies bones with blood, nerves and cells that help them grow and heal.
What is the main structure in the body for support, protection and movement? and what is it made up of?
Compact (cortical) bone. It is made up of concentric bone arranged around a central osteon
what is the purpose of an osteon?
provide strength and support to the bone, and help in repair and remodelling of bone tissue.
describe the structure of a cancellous (spongy) bone
Light and porous, honeycomb like structure. The bone matrix is organised into 3-dimensional latticework of bony processes called trabeculae, arranged along lines of stress. The spaces between are often filled with marrow and blood vessels.
what is the function of cancellous (spongy) bone?
- provides strength and support to the overlying bony cortex whilst minimising weight
- vital reservoir for developing red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells
usually surrounded by a shell of compact bone which provides greater strength and rigidity, enables the bone to dampen sudden stress.
describe the structure of a medullary cavity and its surrounding layers
A hollow central space found within the shaft (diaysis) of long bones. Its walls are formed by a thin layer of spongy bone which is surrounded by a thick layer of compact bone. The medullar cavity is lined with a thin vascular membrane called the endosteum and contains bone marrow.
What is the function of the medullary cavity?
contains bone marrow, which produces blood cells and stores fats and minerals
What is a haversian canal and what is its function?
A haversian canal surrounds blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bones and communicates with osteocytes through connections called lacunae.
What are the 4 types of tissue?
Epithelial tissue
Nervous tissue
connective tissue (inc blood tissue)
muscle (contractile) tissue
What does nervous tissue consist of?
Think about which neurological cells are involved in the CNS and PNS and what do they do?
Nerve cells (neurones) + neurological cells.
CNS
astrocytes (star-shaped) - provide structural and metabolic support to neuron, blood-brain barrier maintenance, regulate neurotransmitter levels, aid in brain and spinal cord repair after injury, regulate blood flow to active brain regions
oligodendrocytes - produce + maintain the myelin sheath, provide metabolic + structural support to neurons (particularly axons), regulate of ion movement around axons for optimal signal transmission
microglial cells - primary immune cells in CNS, phagocytosis, inflammatory response (release cytokines and signalling molecules to mediate inflammation), synaptic remodelling (during development and in response to neural activity), maintenance (monitor the health of neurons and the CNS environment, maintaining homeostasis)
ependymal cells (line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord) - Producing CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) which cushions the brain and the spinal cord, circulating CSF, create a selectively permeable barrier the CSF and brain tissue, neural stem activity (some ependymal cells have stem-like properties, contributing to neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) in certain conditions.
PNS
Satellite cells - found in the ganglia of the PNS, surrounding the neuronal cell bodies. Function: provide structural and metabolic support to neurons, regulate microenvironment (nutrients, ions and neurotransmitters), involved in chronic pain signalling by interacting with sensory neurons, potential role in neural regeneration.
Schwann cells - found in the PNS, wrapping around axons (nerve fibres) . Function: form the myelin sheath, provide support and protection for unmyelinated fibres, help guide axon regrowth through Wallerian degeneration, play a role in nerve inflammation and repair.
What are the various functions of connective tissues? and where does it originate from in the trilaminar disc of the embryo?
- mechanical and structural support
- supports and connects the various parts of the body by 3-dimensional frameworks called stroma
- separate tissues and organs
Originates from cells of the mesodermal layer of the embryo
Describe the structure and function of loose connective tissue, and what does it supply?
Composed of loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibres embedded in a gel-like matrix called ground substance.
Its flexibility allows for movement and stretching without comprising the integrity of neighbouring tissues. It also plays an important role in the immune system as it houses immune cells that fight against infections and foreign particles. Additionally, it facilitates the diffusion of nutrients, gases and waste products between blood vessels and surrounding tissues.
This type of tissue forms a network that surrounds and supports blood vessels, nerves and organs.
What are the two types of dense connective tissue, describe there structure and function and where they are found?
Regular and irregular dense connective tissue.
Dense connective tissue is a type of connective tissue primarily composed of type 1 collagen fibres. Fewer cells and less ground substance compared to loose connective tissue.
Regular - fibres are arranged in a parallel and organized pattern - Mainly composed of collagen fibres, with some fibroblasts (cells that produce the collagen and other fibres) - provides strength, flexible support from one direction- Found in tendons and ligaments
Irregular - fibres are arranged in a more random, less organized pattern - Similar composition to regular dense connective tissue - provides strength in multiple directions as opposed to one
- Found in areas that require support and flexibility from various angles, such as the dermis of the skin and the fibrous capsules around organs and joints.
what are the 5 main types of connective tissue?
loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone and blood.
what are the 3 types of cartilage? Describe their structure and function and where they are found?
3 types of cartilage: hyaline, elastic and fibro.
Cartilage is made up of the following components specialised cells called chondrocytes and chondroblasts, ECM (which includes glycosaminoglycans (hydrophilic and ideal for attracting water, which contributes to the gel-like consistency of the extracellular matrix (ECM)), proteoglycans (Proteoglycans are proteins covalently linked to GAGs (except hyaluronic acid). They function in hydration, cushioning, and structural support of the ECM) and water)
- Hyaline - smooth, glossy appearance due to fine collagen fibres that are not easily visible under a microscope.
- provides smooth surfaces for joint movement, flexibility and support
- found in the nose, trachea, larynx, ends of long bones (Articular cartilage) and the fetal skeleton
- Elastic - contains a high number of elastic fibres in addition to collagen fibres, making it more flexible and resilient. - maintains the shape of structures while providing flexibility
- found in the ear (auricle), the epiglottis (part of the larynx), and the eustachian tubes
- Fibro - contains thick bundles of collagen fibres, making it very strong and able to withstand heavy pressure - provides strong support and withstands compression
- found in the intervertebral discs, the menisci (knee), and the pubic symphysis (joint between the two pelvic bones)
What are the two types of bone tissue? and describe their structure and function? And also where it is found?
lamellar bone and trabecular bone
- Lamellar- type of mature bone characterised by its organized structure, consisting of parallel layers or lamellae of collagen fibres. - makes up the compact bones in the skeleton, such as the long bones of the legs and arms.
replaces woven bone during the process of bone remodelling, ensuring the strength and integrity of the skeletal system. - Trabecular bone- Lighter less dense type of bone found within the interior of bones. It has a porous, honeycomb like structure composed of trabeculae, which are thin rods and plates of bones that form a meshwork - Found at the end of long bones and in the vertebrae. Like at the ends of the femur - Network of spongy bones acts as a shock absorber cushioning the impact forces during locomotion.
What is blood made up of? Where is it located and what is its role?
Blood (fluid connective tissue)
- Made up of red and white blood cells., plasma and platelets.- Located within your bones, bone marrow. - transportation of substances into and out of the body, regulation of internal body temperature, involved in the immune response
compare loose connective tissue to dense connective tissue
LCT has fewer fibres (still has collagen and elastin), more cells and ground substance, less rigid and more easily distorted (still provides resistance when stretched creating a tough barrier).
what do chondrocytes do?
produces a matrix in cartilage (ECM) which is made up of type 2 collagen, glycoproteins and water. They synthesize GAG, elastin and collagen to provide cartilage with strength, flexibility, and resilience, regulation of cartilage during embryonic development and postnatal growth, response to mechanical stress.
What does cartilage not contain that makes it more flexible than bone?
calcium phosphate
What is the composition of blood and to what levels?
Approximately 55% plasma, 45% erythrocytes (red blood cells), 1% leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets)
How are cells separated in connective tissue?
separated by abundant ECM.
What are the 3 main components of connective tissues?
cells, collagen fibres and ground substances (special proteins).
What are the name of the cells embedded in cartilage, bone, muscle, tendons?
Cartilage= chondrocytes
Bone= Osteoblasts/osteocytes/osteoclasts
Muscle= myocytes
Tendons= tenocytes (elongated fibrocytes)
Osteoclasts ae derived from monocytes ( a white blood cell (WBC) linage)
What does ECM consists of? And what is its function? What are the 3 types of specialist cells that maintain the matrix?
ECM consists of collagen (several types, type 1 most common) and elastin fibres, ground substance and water.
It gives connective tissue its morphological and functional characteristics. Provides structural support of cells, also guides their division, growth and development.
- blasts - cytes and - clasts.
- blasts create matrix
- cytes maintain matrix (control activity of blasts and clasts)
- clasts break down matrix for remodelling
What is the difference between fibrous ECM and liquid ECM in structure, function and properties?
Structure
- Fibrous ECM is composed mainly of fibrous proteins like collagen, elastin and fibronectin. These proteins form a dense, mesh-like network.
- Liquid ECM is found in fluids like blood plasma. It contains a mix of soluble proteins, electrolytes, and other molecules.
Function
- Fibrous ECM provides structural support and tensile strength to tissues. It’s crucial in areas that experience high mechanical stress, such as tendons, ligaments and skin.
- Liquid ECM facilitates the transport of nutrients, waste products, and signalling molecules throughout the body. It also helps maintain homeostasis and providing a medium for cellular communication.
Properties
- Fibrous ECM is highly rigid and strong, capable of withstanding stretching and pressure. It also plays a role in cell adhesion, migration and differentiation.
Liquid ECM is more fluid and less structured compared to fibrous ECM. It allows for easy movement and flow of its components.
In embryonic development what layer of the germ layer does connective tissue come from?
The mesoderm (middle layer)
Where was loose connective tissue found primarily in early embryonic development? What features did it have?
In the umbilical cord.
Features: hydrophilic ECM, jelly-like, also known as mucoid connective tissue or Wharton’s jelly.
what is reticular connective tissue?
Connective tissue is a form of connective tissue with reticular fibres (collagen type III) as the main component.
It contains reticular and elastic fibres that are the main element in irregular connective tissues. Reticular fibres form the stroma of the lymphoid system (lymph nodes and spleen). Elastic fibres line intervertebral discs and the wall of the aorta.
What are the 2 types of adipose tissue and what is their function? describe their structure and function?
Brown adipose tissue - involved in heat control (insulation)
White adipose tissue - energy storage
Structure: little ECM surrounding cells, cells full of lipid
Function: packaging, protection, insulation
Factors to consider before accessing locomotion?
Before you start accessing locomotion.
Consider:
- Space availability
- Surface conditions (firm, level, non-slip) firm surface allows you to access muscular, soft surface: soft tissue and allowing you to listen to footfalls
- Age of animal
- Any medical conditions
- Handler
Speed of gait
How to access locomotion?
- Visual observations
- Locomotion analysis equipment (high speed treadmills, video cameras, data analysis software, force plates)
Assess quality and divergence from the norm
What is a stride? and what are the 2 phases involved in a stride?
A stride is a complete cycle of movement. E.G. from the setting down of a foot to the next setting down of the same foot
2 phases
- stance phase (weight bearing limb)
- swing phase (non-weight bearing limb)
What is the beat of a walk and sequence of foot falls?
4 beat. RH-RF-LH-LF
What is the beat of a trot and sequence of foot falls?
2 beat LH+RF then LF+RH
What is the beat of a canter and sequence of foot falls?
3 beat RH,RF+LH,LF or LH,LF+RH,RF
What is the beat of a gallop and sequence of foot falls?
fast 4 beat
Transverse gallop
Horses, cattle, deer, dogs at low speed, LH,RH,LF,RF, suspension phase
Rotatory gallop
Dogs at high speed, cheetahs, gazelle, running rodents RH,LH suspension phase ,LF,RF, suspension phase
Counter-rotatory is opposite of rotatory gallop - greyhounds on the track
what neurological sensations are involved in limb coordination?
vision
vestibular system - balance
mechanoreceptors - touch
nociceptors - pain
proprioceptors - body position
What motor responses are used in limb coordination?
Nervous system: voluntary and involuntary control, reflexes
central pattern generators: generate rhythmic motor patterns (Inc respiration). Responsible for producing gaits: walk, trot, canter etc..
Brainstem - The brainstem plays a crucial role in limb coordination by acting as a relay centre for many essential motor functions. It integrates and processes signals between the brain and the spinal cord to facilitate smooth, coordinated movements of the limbs.
Cerebellum - balance (continuously processing information related to body position, movement, and coordination)
Constant monitoring of muscle length and tension (muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs)
Equine adaptations to high speed locomotion
- increased stride length: elongation of distal limb, mobile scapula, increase length of limb, whiplash effect - small motion upper limb > flick of lower limb
- minimise mass of limb: most work done by animal during locomotion involves accelerating and decelerating limbs, muscles positioned proximally (near pivot-point), reduced number of bones in limb, adaptations to lower mass (inertia) of lower limb
- conservation of energy: whiplash effect of limb, long tendons (transfer load, shock absorbers, energy store), stable joints
- relatively rigid spine/sacroiliac junction: large gut, large body mass, transfer of energy from powerful hind quarters, minimise up-and-down movements of body during locomotion (conserves energy)
Functional adaptations to high-speed locomotion: canine
- Elongation of limbs with mass being proximal
-digitigrade: need claws for catching prey, claws may assist with grip
- flexible back: arches & straightens over wide range - increases stride length
- tail: assists with balance when out-of-balance
clinical consequences of adaptations: equine
- low safety margins: bones and tendons (fractures and tendon strains)
- little soft-tissue cover of distal limbs (poor wound/fracture healing)
- little soft tissue to absorb impact loads (joint injuries/osteoarthiritis)
what are the 2 components of welfare?
physiological components and behavioural components
