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Psyc 100 > Nicola Eriksen > Flashcards

Nicola Eriksen Flashcards

Midterm October 5th

1
Q

academic adjustment

A

ones ability to cope with post-secondary school

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2
Q

trigger warnings

A

recalls of previous traumas

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3
Q

exposure

A

to fears, things that trigger you

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4
Q

systematic observation

A

A careful observation of the world for a better understanding of it.

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5
Q

empirical methods

A

the actual measurements and observations

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6
Q

hypotheses

A

a logical idea that can be tested

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7
Q

theories

A

groups of closely related observations

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8
Q

ethics

A

scientific psychologist follow a specific set of guidelines for research known as a code of ethics

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9
Q

deception

A

misleading or tricking participants in the purpose of the study - can be done but must tell participants once that study has been over

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10
Q

data

A

information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation

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11
Q

induction

A

to draw general conclusions from specific observations

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12
Q

sample

A

in research a number of people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population

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13
Q

pseudoscience

A

beliefs or practise or mistaken for presented as science

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14
Q

falsified

A

the ability for a claim to be tested - refuted; a defining feature of science

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15
Q

probabilities

A

measure of degree of certainties of occurrence of the event

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16
Q

inductive reasoning

A

a form of reasoning in which general conclusions are inferred from a set of observations

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17
Q

deductive reasoning

A

a form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of a specific observation.

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18
Q

representative

A

a sample is a typical example of the population where it was drawn

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19
Q

anecdotal evidence

A

biased experience - may or may not be true

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20
Q

population

A

all people belonging to a group

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21
Q

correlation

A

relationship of relativeness to two or more variables

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22
Q

Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)

A

the collected data would be the same if there would be no relationship between the variable

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23
Q

distribution

A

is a spread of values

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24
Q

type 1 error

A

when the researcher concludes that there is a relationship between the two variables but there is not

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25
Q

type 2 error

A

where the data failed to show that there was actually a relationship between the two variables

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26
Q

probability value

A

the given threshold whether the given value occurs by chance - type 1 or 2 error

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27
Q

scientific theory

A

an explanation for an observed phenomenon that is empirically well supported, consistent, and predictive

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28
Q

empirically

A

concerned with an observation/or the ability to verify a claim

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29
Q

objective

A

being free from personal bias

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30
Q

facts

A

objective information about the world

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31
Q

values

A

belief the way things should be

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32
Q

levels of analysis

A

that a phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously

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33
Q

casualty

A

one variable is responsible for a cause that turned into an effect

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34
Q

generalize

A

one can extend their conclusions on finding from another group or situation not included in the study

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35
Q

empiricism

A

the belief that knowledge comes from experience

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36
Q

neural impulse

A

an eletro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate

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37
Q

psychophysics

A

the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the human perception (mental) of those stimuli

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38
Q

introspection

A

a method on focusing internal processes

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39
Q

consciousness

A

awareness of our selves and around us

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40
Q

structuralism

A

describe the elements of conscious experience - what the content of the mind is

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41
Q

functionalism

A

activities of the mind - what the mind does

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42
Q

individual differences

A

ways in which people behave differently

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43
Q

eugenics

A

the practice of selective breeding to promote on desired traits

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44
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

to study the unity of experience

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45
Q

cognitive psychology

A

study of mental processes

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46
Q

Behaviourism

A

study of behaviour

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47
Q

flashbulb memory

A

highly detail and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event

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48
Q

tip of the tongue phenomenon

A

inability to pull a word from memory even though there is a sensation that the word is available

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49
Q

scientist-practitioner model

A

training a psychologist that emphasis the development of both research and clinical skills

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50
Q

scholar-practitioner model

A

training a psychologist that emphasis clinical practise

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51
Q

cause and effect

A

related to one variable causing changes on another variable which evokes an effect

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52
Q

distribution

A

pattern of variation in data

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53
Q

p-value

A

(due to chance and not experimental condition) tells you have often a random process would give a result at least as extreme as what was found in the actual study, assuming there was nothing other than random chance at play.

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54
Q

significance

A

we often compare the p-value with some cutoff value - unlikely arise by chance alone

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55
Q

sample

A

collection of individuals where we collect the data from

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56
Q

population

A

where we generalize our results from

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57
Q

generalized

A

whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger sample (population)

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58
Q

random sample

A

using the probability-based method to select a subset of individuals from the sample from the population

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59
Q

margin of error

A

the expected amount of random variation in statistics - 95% confidence level

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60
Q

randomly assigning

A

divide a sample group into treatment groups

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61
Q

operational definitions

A

how researchers specially measure a concept

62
Q

independent variable

A

researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment

63
Q

dependent variable

A

researcher can only measure its outcome

64
Q

correlation

A

measures the association between two variables

65
Q

quasi-experimental design

A

an experiment that does not require random assignment

66
Q

longitudinal study

A

a study that follows the same group of individuals over a period of time

67
Q

generalize

A

in research one that can extend conclusions from the finding of a study or situations not included to study.

68
Q

internal validity

A

a cause-effect relationship between two variables that have been established by one interpretation - how well a study has been established

69
Q

external validity

A

relates how applicable the findings are to the real world

70
Q

ecological validity

A

findings are obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life

71
Q

experience-sampling method

A

a method where individuals report on thoughts, feelings, and behaviours over a course of a day

72
Q

ecological momentary assessment

A

repeatedly sample participants’ real-world experiences, behaviours, and physiology in real-time

73
Q

diary method

A

participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of the day at the end of the day

74
Q

Day reconstruction method

A

obtain a persons daily experiences without going through the burden of collecting momentary sampling-experience
- on the following day they report

75
Q

electronically activated recorder (EAR)

A

participants wear a portable audio recorder that records ambient sounds around them

76
Q

white coat hypertension

A

patient exhibits high blood pressure in the hospital or near a doctor but not in everyday life

77
Q

ambulatory assessment

A

assess human behaviour in natural settings

78
Q

linguistic analysis

A

quantitative text analysis assess psychological information from texts

79
Q

full-cycle psychology

A

Going full cycle, they suggest, means that “researchers use naturalistic observation to determine an effect’s presence in the real world, theory to determine what processes underlie the effect, experimentation to verify the effect and its underlying processes, and a return to the natural environment to corroborate the experimental findings.

80
Q

behavioural genetics

A

how gene and environment combine to generate behaviour

81
Q

adoption study

A

behavioural genetic research to comparison with adopted children to their adoptive and biological parent

82
Q

twins

A

behavioural genetic research of the study of comparison with similarities of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic)

83
Q

quantitative genetics

A

scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.

84
Q

heritability coefficient

A

An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.

85
Q

natural selection

A

Differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences inheritable attributes. Every mating success by one person means the loss of mating opportunity for another

86
Q

adaptations

A

traits and behaviours that evolved over time to increase our reproductive success

87
Q

survival adaptations

A

mechanisms that helped our ancestors handle the “hostile forces of nature”.

88
Q

sexual selection adaptations

A

evolution of characteristics because of mating advantage they give organisms

89
Q

intrasexual competition

A

A process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete with each other and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex - victors are more attractive to potential mates this increases success in reproduction

90
Q

intersexual selection

A

certain traits of one sex is more valuable then another - the better the trait the more success that trait will get passed on - increase chance is mating - reproduction success

91
Q

psychological adaptations

A

mechanisms of the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction

92
Q

physiological adaptation

A

which are adaptations that occur in the body as a consequence of one’s environment

93
Q

error management

A

theory deals with the evolution of cognitive biases that lead to judgments and decisions we make in situations of uncertainty

94
Q

Gene Selection Theory

A

The modern theory of evolution by selection by which differential gene replication is the defining process of evolutionary change

95
Q

Sexual strategies theory

A

A comprehensive evolutionary theory of human mating that defines the menu of mating strategies humans pursue (e.g., short-term casual sex, long-term committed mating), the adaptive problems women and men face when pursuing these strategies, and the evolved solutions to these mating problems.

96
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic marks include covalent DNA modifications and posttranslational histone modifications.

97
Q

phenotype

A

The pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed—an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behaviour.

98
Q

epigenome

A

The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks

99
Q

identical twins

A

Two individual organisms that originated from the same zygote and therefore are genetically identical or very similar. The epigenetic profiling of identical twins discordant for disease is a unique experimental design as it eliminates the DNA sequence-, age-, and sex-differences from consideration.
they share a common genotype and are genetically identical and epigenetically similar when they are young, as they age they become more dissimilar in their epigenetic patterns and often display behavioural, personality, or even physical differences, and have different risk levels for serious illness.

100
Q

perceptual learning

A

when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience

101
Q

implicit learning

A

This occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.

102
Q

implicit memory

A

A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.

103
Q

nonassociative learning

A

This occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour.

104
Q

habituation

A

This occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.

105
Q

sensitization

A

Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure

106
Q

classical conditioning (pavlovian)

A

Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.

107
Q

operant conditioning (instrumental)

A

Describes stimulus-response associative learning.

108
Q

working memory

A

The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.

109
Q

chunk

A

The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.

110
Q

encoding

A

The pact of putting information into memory.

111
Q

incidental learning

A

This occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.

112
Q

intentional learning

A

Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.

113
Q

metacognition

A

Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.

114
Q

transfer-appropriate processing

A

A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.

115
Q

unconditional stimulus

A

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that evokes the response before conditioning occurs.

116
Q

unconditional response

A

In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.

117
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that evokes a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

118
Q

conditioned response

A

The response that is evoked by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.

119
Q

operant

A

A behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.

120
Q

reinforcers

A

Any consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed again.

121
Q

law of effect

A

The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviours are lawfully controlled by their consequences.

122
Q

punishers

A

(opposite to reinforcers) A stimulus that decreases the strength of operant behaviour when it is made a consequence of the behavior.

123
Q

taste aversion conditioning

A

The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.

124
Q

fear conditioning

A

A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.

125
Q

conditioned compensatory responses

A

In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.

126
Q

blocking

A

In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. This suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.

127
Q

prediction error

A

When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.

128
Q

preparedness

A

The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.

129
Q

extinction

A

Decrease in the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviours that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”

130
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. It can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.

131
Q

renewal effect

A

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. It can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.

132
Q

context

A

Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”

133
Q

stimulus control

A

When an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.

134
Q

discriminative stimulus

A

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.

135
Q

quantitative law of effect

A

A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.

136
Q

reinforcer devaluation effect

A

The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.

137
Q

goal-directed

A

Instrumental behaviour that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect. this then becomes a habit

138
Q

observational learning

A

Learning by observing the behaviour of others.

139
Q

social learning theory

A

The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing the behaviour of others.

140
Q

social models

A

kinda like role models - Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviours.

141
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.

142
Q

knowledge emotions

A

A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happening in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.

143
Q

functionalist theories of emotions

A

Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.

144
Q

appraisal theories

A

Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.

145
Q

surprise

A

An emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event.

146
Q

interest

A

An emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span.

147
Q

intrinsically motivated

A

Learning that is “for its own sake”—such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder—instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.

148
Q

coping potential

A

People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges.

149
Q

trait curiosity

A

Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.

150
Q

openness to experience

A

One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.

151
Q

accommodation

A

Changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience.

152
Q

chills

A

A feeling of goosebumps, usually on the arms, scalp, and neck, that is often experienced during moments of awe.

Psyc 100 (1 decks)

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