Nicola Eriksen Flashcards
Midterm October 5th
1
Q
academic adjustment
A
ones ability to cope with post-secondary school
2
Q
trigger warnings
A
recalls of previous traumas
3
Q
exposure
A
to fears, things that trigger you
4
Q
systematic observation
A
A careful observation of the world for a better understanding of it.
5
Q
empirical methods
A
the actual measurements and observations
6
Q
hypotheses
A
a logical idea that can be tested
7
Q
theories
A
groups of closely related observations
8
Q
ethics
A
scientific psychologist follow a specific set of guidelines for research known as a code of ethics
9
Q
deception
A
misleading or tricking participants in the purpose of the study - can be done but must tell participants once that study has been over
10
Q
data
A
information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation
11
Q
induction
A
to draw general conclusions from specific observations
12
Q
sample
A
in research a number of people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population
13
Q
pseudoscience
A
beliefs or practise or mistaken for presented as science
14
Q
falsified
A
the ability for a claim to be tested - refuted; a defining feature of science
15
Q
probabilities
A
measure of degree of certainties of occurrence of the event
16
Q
inductive reasoning
A
a form of reasoning in which general conclusions are inferred from a set of observations
17
Q
deductive reasoning
A
a form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of a specific observation.
18
Q
representative
A
a sample is a typical example of the population where it was drawn
19
Q
anecdotal evidence
A
biased experience - may or may not be true
20
Q
population
A
all people belonging to a group
21
Q
correlation
A
relationship of relativeness to two or more variables
22
Q
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
A
the collected data would be the same if there would be no relationship between the variable
23
Q
distribution
A
is a spread of values
24
Q
type 1 error
A
when the researcher concludes that there is a relationship between the two variables but there is not
25
type 2 error
where the data failed to show that there was actually a relationship between the two variables
26
probability value
the given threshold whether the given value occurs by chance - type 1 or 2 error
27
scientific theory
an explanation for an observed phenomenon that is empirically well supported, consistent, and predictive
28
empirically
concerned with an observation/or the ability to verify a claim
29
objective
being free from personal bias
30
facts
objective information about the world
31
values
belief the way things should be
32
levels of analysis
that a phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously
33
casualty
one variable is responsible for a cause that turned into an effect
34
generalize
one can extend their conclusions on finding from another group or situation not included in the study
35
empiricism
the belief that knowledge comes from experience
36
neural impulse
an eletro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate
37
psychophysics
the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the human perception (mental) of those stimuli
38
introspection
a method on focusing internal processes
39
consciousness
awareness of our selves and around us
40
structuralism
describe the elements of conscious experience - what the content of the mind is
41
functionalism
activities of the mind - what the mind does
42
individual differences
ways in which people behave differently
43
eugenics
the practice of selective breeding to promote on desired traits
44
Gestalt psychology
to study the unity of experience
45
cognitive psychology
study of mental processes
46
Behaviourism
study of behaviour
47
flashbulb memory
highly detail and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event
48
tip of the tongue phenomenon
inability to pull a word from memory even though there is a sensation that the word is available
49
scientist-practitioner model
training a psychologist that emphasis the development of both research and clinical skills
50
scholar-practitioner model
training a psychologist that emphasis clinical practise
51
cause and effect
related to one variable causing changes on another variable which evokes an effect
52
distribution
pattern of variation in data
53
p-value
(due to chance and not experimental condition) tells you have often a random process would give a result at least as extreme as what was found in the actual study, assuming there was nothing other than random chance at play.
54
significance
we often compare the p-value with some cutoff value - unlikely arise by chance alone
55
sample
collection of individuals where we collect the data from
56
population
where we generalize our results from
57
generalized
whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger sample (population)
58
random sample
using the probability-based method to select a subset of individuals from the sample from the population
59
margin of error
the expected amount of random variation in statistics - 95% confidence level
60
randomly assigning
divide a sample group into treatment groups
61
operational definitions
how researchers specially measure a concept
62
independent variable
researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment
63
dependent variable
researcher can only measure its outcome
64
correlation
measures the association between two variables
65
quasi-experimental design
an experiment that does not require random assignment
66
longitudinal study
a study that follows the same group of individuals over a period of time
67
generalize
in research one that can extend conclusions from the finding of a study or situations not included to study.
68
internal validity
a cause-effect relationship between two variables that have been established by one interpretation - how well a study has been established
69
external validity
relates how applicable the findings are to the real world
70
ecological validity
findings are obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life
71
experience-sampling method
a method where individuals report on thoughts, feelings, and behaviours over a course of a day
72
ecological momentary assessment
repeatedly sample participants' real-world experiences, behaviours, and physiology in real-time
73
diary method
participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of the day at the end of the day
74
Day reconstruction method
obtain a persons daily experiences without going through the burden of collecting momentary sampling-experience
- on the following day they report
75
electronically activated recorder (EAR)
participants wear a portable audio recorder that records ambient sounds around them
76
white coat hypertension
patient exhibits high blood pressure in the hospital or near a doctor but not in everyday life
77
ambulatory assessment
assess human behaviour in natural settings
78
linguistic analysis
quantitative text analysis assess psychological information from texts
79
full-cycle psychology
Going full cycle, they suggest, means that “researchers use naturalistic observation to determine an effect’s presence in the real world, theory to determine what processes underlie the effect, experimentation to verify the effect and its underlying processes, and a return to the natural environment to corroborate the experimental findings.
80
behavioural genetics
how gene and environment combine to generate behaviour
81
adoption study
behavioural genetic research to comparison with adopted children to their adoptive and biological parent
82
twins
behavioural genetic research of the study of comparison with similarities of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic)
83
quantitative genetics
scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.
84
heritability coefficient
An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.
85
natural selection
Differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences inheritable attributes. Every mating success by one person means the loss of mating opportunity for another
86
adaptations
traits and behaviours that evolved over time to increase our reproductive success
87
survival adaptations
mechanisms that helped our ancestors handle the “hostile forces of nature".
88
sexual selection adaptations
evolution of characteristics because of mating advantage they give organisms
89
intrasexual competition
A process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete with each other and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex - victors are more attractive to potential mates this increases success in reproduction
90
intersexual selection
certain traits of one sex is more valuable then another - the better the trait the more success that trait will get passed on - increase chance is mating - reproduction success
91
psychological adaptations
mechanisms of the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction
92
physiological adaptation
which are adaptations that occur in the body as a consequence of one’s environment
93
error management
theory deals with the evolution of cognitive biases that lead to judgments and decisions we make in situations of uncertainty
94
Gene Selection Theory
The modern theory of evolution by selection by which differential gene replication is the defining process of evolutionary change
95
Sexual strategies theory
A comprehensive evolutionary theory of human mating that defines the menu of mating strategies humans pursue (e.g., short-term casual sex, long-term committed mating), the adaptive problems women and men face when pursuing these strategies, and the evolved solutions to these mating problems.
96
Epigenetics
The study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic marks include covalent DNA modifications and posttranslational histone modifications.
97
phenotype
The pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed—an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behaviour.
98
epigenome
The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks
99
identical twins
Two individual organisms that originated from the same zygote and therefore are genetically identical or very similar. The epigenetic profiling of identical twins discordant for disease is a unique experimental design as it eliminates the DNA sequence-, age-, and sex-differences from consideration.
they share a common genotype and are genetically identical and epigenetically similar when they are young, as they age they become more dissimilar in their epigenetic patterns and often display behavioural, personality, or even physical differences, and have different risk levels for serious illness.
100
perceptual learning
when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience
101
implicit learning
This occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
102
implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.
103
nonassociative learning
This occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour.
104
habituation
This occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.
105
sensitization
Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure
106
classical conditioning (pavlovian)
Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.
107
operant conditioning (instrumental)
Describes stimulus-response associative learning.
108
working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.
109
chunk
The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.
110
encoding
The pact of putting information into memory.
111
incidental learning
This occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
112
intentional learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.
113
metacognition
Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.
114
transfer-appropriate processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.
115
unconditional stimulus
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that evokes the response before conditioning occurs.
116
unconditional response
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.
117
conditioned stimulus
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that evokes a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
118
conditioned response
The response that is evoked by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
119
operant
A behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.
120
reinforcers
Any consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed again.
121
law of effect
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviours are lawfully controlled by their consequences.
122
punishers
(opposite to reinforcers) A stimulus that decreases the strength of operant behaviour when it is made a consequence of the behavior.
123
taste aversion conditioning
The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.
124
fear conditioning
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.
125
conditioned compensatory responses
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
126
blocking
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. This suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.
127
prediction error
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.
128
preparedness
The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.
129
extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviours that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”
130
spontaneous recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. It can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
131
renewal effect
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. It can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
132
context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”
133
stimulus control
When an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.
134
discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
135
quantitative law of effect
A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.
136
reinforcer devaluation effect
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.
137
goal-directed
Instrumental behaviour that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect. this then becomes a habit
138
observational learning
Learning by observing the behaviour of others.
139
social learning theory
The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing the behaviour of others.
140
social models
kinda like role models - Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviours.
141
vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.
142
knowledge emotions
A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happening in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.
143
functionalist theories of emotions
Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.
144
appraisal theories
Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.
145
surprise
An emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event.
146
interest
An emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span.
147
intrinsically motivated
Learning that is “for its own sake”—such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder—instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.
148
coping potential
People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges.
149
trait curiosity
Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.
150
openness to experience
One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.
151
accommodation
Changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience.
152
chills
A feeling of goosebumps, usually on the arms, scalp, and neck, that is often experienced during moments of awe.
