new one

Question 1

Idiographic definition

Answer 1

focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature

Doesn’t seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others

Question 2

Nomothetic definition

Answer 2

concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people

Question 3

What research methods do idiographic approaches prefer and why?

Answer 3

case studies, unstructured interviews

Provide an in-depth insight into individual behaviour

Question 4

AO3 of the idiographic approach

Answer 4

Weaknesses of using unscientific methods e.g. uncontrolled, hard to replicate, low generalisability

+ case study methods can be powerful in evaluating theories - KF exposed a limitation of MSM, leading to improvement on STM - WMM

• unscientific nature - hard to come up with justifiable generalisations, limits usefulness in practical applications such as diagnosis and treatments of mental disorders

Question 5

What research methods do nomothetic approaches prefer and why?

Answer 5

research methods: experiments, correlational research

approach is scientific

Statistical and quantitative methods to analyse data

Question 6

AO3 of nomothetic approach

Answer 6

Benefits of using scientific methods e.g. quantitative methods, controlled, reliable methods

Application of approach - biological approach using drug treatments for mental health issues e.g. OCD/depression

Many approaches in psychology adopt both an idiographic and nomothetic approach e.g. psychodynamic and cognitive

Question 7

Idiographic examples

Answer 7

Case study KF in memory - STM of auditory information better than visual, STM consists of multiple components. KF = undermined model of MSM

Question 8

Nomothetic examples

Answer 8

Biological approach e.g. OCD, depression as they pinpoint a biological factor e.g. neurotransmitters that are responsible for these disorders.

Behaviourist approach e.g. Pavlov and Skinner, experiments on animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical/operant) that is generalised to humans

Cognitive approach e.g. MSM applied to everyone

Question 9

Nature definition

Answer 9

view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors

Locke = new born infants born as a tabula rasa (blank slate)

Question 10

Nurture definition

Answer 10

behaviour is the product of environmental influences anything outside the body e.g. people, events, physical world

Question 11

Heredity definition

Answer 11

process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next

Question 12

Interactionist approach to nature vs nurture

Answer 12

where nature and nurture overlap and work together to shape human behaviour.

Question 13

Examples of nature

Answer 13

Bowlby: children come into the world biologically programmed to attach in order to help survival

Question 14

Example of nurture

Answer 14

explaining attachment through classical conditioning where infant attaches as they associate primary caregiver with pleasure e.g. food. Then attachment is maintained via operant conditioning

Question 15

Examples of the interactionist approach

Answer 15

genetic disorder PKU which is expressed by recessive alleles however low protein diet for first 12 years can avoid it

Question 16

AO3 of Nature vs nurture

Answer 16

Nature and nurture have become so complex; many psychologists see it as meaningless
Plomin et al: genetic influences on parental behaviour creates a particular environment which can determine aspects of behaviour e.g. parent with gene for mental health = unsettled home, child suffers mental health due to genetics, home life or both

Neural plasticity suggests how life experiences shape our biology
Maguire et al - London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus size
Blackmore and Cooper - Kittens raised in isolation seeing either vertical or horizontal stripes. When placed in world at 5 months, they couldn’t see lines of opposite orientation

Diathesis-stress model - born with a biological vulnerability such as a gene for depression but an environmental factor/stressor will trigger it
Research suggests not everyone with the gene will develop the disorder depression

Question 17

Reductionist definition

Answer 17

belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts

Best way to look at behaviour is to break it down and use the simplest explanation to explain how it works

Question 18

Holism definition

Answer 18

Human behaviour should be viewed as whole integrated experiences and not separate parts

Question 19

Biological reductionism

Answer 19

biological psychologist attempt to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain using neurones, neurotransmitters etc.

Question 20

Environmental reductionism

Answer 20

assume all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus-response association that complex behaviour is a series of S-R chains.

Question 21

Example of holist approach

Answer 21

gestalt psychology (holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we see it as a whole rather than a collective part)

humanistic approach = react to stimuli as a whole

Question 22

Example of the biological approach

Answer 22

OCD is caused by neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin

Question 23

Example of environmental reductionism

Answer 23

behavioural approach to explaining phobias - caused by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning

Question 24

Levels of explanations and examples

Answer 24

Behaviour can be explained by different levels

Biological - OCD is caused by neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin

Psychological - OCD - obsessive thoughts

Cultural - Odd/irrational behaviours caused by OCD

Question 25

AO3 of holism and reductionism

Answer 25

+ reductionist approaches = scientific, operationalisation by breaking behaviour down into measurable components, increased reliability - many approaches are reductionist meaning they ignore other aspects of behaviour, oversimplifies variable + more beneficial stance when explaining behaviours that only occur in social contexts - Zimbardo's conformity prison experiment - lacks practical value as some holistic accounts of behaviour are hard to use due to complexity, may be vague and hard to know which factor is most influential when there are many

Question 26

Androcentric definition

Answer 26

dominated by males. In the past, most psychologists were males and the theories they produce tend to be based around a male view on the world.

Question 27

Alpha bias definition

Answer 27

exaggerate the differences between males and females

Question 28

Beta bais

Answer 28

ignored or minimised sex differences. Theories often assume that findings from males can be equally applied to females

Question 29

Gender bias definition

Answer 29

the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not real differences

Question 30

Examples of Gender bias

Answer 30

Approaches: alpha bias as women are seen as inferior compared to males as Freud believed there was genuine differences between males and females. Young females were inferior to males as they suffered penis envy Fight or flight: beta bias as they assumed male findings on applied to females. Social influence: Zimbardo's study conducted only on males and assumed conformity to roles is the same for females.

Question 31

AO3 of gender bias

Answer 31

Taylor et al came up with a theory to overcome the beta bias. Development of tend and befriend Abu Ghraib women in real life prison also were perpetrators of the abusive behaviour Implications of gender bias research can be problematic and show that is isn't just a methodological issue. Failing to challenge negative stereotypes Validation of discrimination Illustrates that there are real biological differences between genders. Therefore, we need to review our facts about gender and use this to support women. Eagly: acknowledged women may be less effective leaders than males and this should be used to aid in training etc. to create more female leaders.

Question 32

Free will definition

Answer 32

idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Individuals are free to choose their behaviours and are self determined.

Question 33

Determinism definition

Answer 33

free will is an illusion, our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces over which we have no control

Question 34

Soft determinism definition

Answer 34

behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make up but only to a certain extent

Question 35

Hard determinism definition

Answer 35

forces outside of our control e.g. biological/past experiences shape our behaviour

Question 36

Biological determinism definition

Answer 36

all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes

Question 37

Environmental determinism definition

Answer 37

behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual e.g. previous experiences - learnt through classical and operant conditioning

Question 38

Psychic determinism definition

Answer 38

Claims human behaviour is the result of childhood and innate drives

Question 39

Example of biological determinism

Answer 39

psychopathology - OCD is partly genetic. If 1st degree relative has OCD, 5x more likely to have OCD

Question 40

Example of environmental determinism

Answer 40

psychopathology - phobias acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

Question 41

Psychic determinist example

Answer 41

gender - gendered behaviours are acquired during the phallic stage or development through the oedipus complex where children identify with the same sex parents

Question 42

Free will example

Answer 42

Within Maslows hierachy of need people are free agents to seek out the stages of the hierachy

Question 43

AO3 of free will vs determinism

Answer 43

Concept of free will isn't falsifiable. If psychology tries to be scientific, the concept of free will isn't scientific as it can't be falsified. You can't test the idea of free will.

Question 44

Universality definition

Answer 44

Research, theories and explanations often aim to represent universal human behaviour.

Question 45

Cultural bias

Answer 45

If the 'norm' or 'standard' for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of a particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour that deviate from this standard will be seen as abnormal, 'inferior' or 'unusual'

Question 46

Ethnocentrism definition

Answer 46

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture. At an extreme it is the belief that there is superiority of one's own culture and this can lead to prejudice and discrimination

Question 47

Cultural relativism definition

Answer 47

The idea that norms, values and ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 48

Example of cultural bias - beta bias

Answer 48

Ainsworth Strange Situation reflects only the values of American culture The idea of a secure attachment was shown as showing moderate distress etc upon separation in USA In germany, they emphasise the independence so they appeared as 'cold'

Question 49

AO3 of cultural bias

Answer 49

western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behaviour they have observed from the context in which they observed it Indigenous psychologies - development of different groups of theories in different countries Afrocentrism: research in Africa need to be African centred and express African values The increase in travel and community means there is an increase in understanding of other cultures. International conferences where researchers meet and exchange ideas should reduce the bias

Question 50

Ethical issues definition

Answer 50

Issues that arise when there is conflict between the rights of the ps and the aims of the researcher

Question 51

Ethical implications definition

Answer 51

Considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in wider context, not just the participants

Question 52

Socially sensitivity definition

Answer 52

Socially sensitive to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the ps or the group of people represented by the research

Question 53

4 things Sieber and Stanley say researchers should consider when conducting socially sensitive research

Answer 53

1) The research question - most consider their question carefully e.g. are there racial differences in IQ? vs is intelligence inherited? 2) The methodology used - researchers needs to consider the treatment of the ps and their rights to confidentiality and anonymity 3)The institutional context - researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and who is funding the researc 4) Interpretation and application of the findings - researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world

Question 54

Example of socially sensitive research

Answer 54

Milgram - results could be used to ensure that people obey orders, including those they don't wish to follow

Question 55

Ethical implications of Bowlby

Answer 55

Bowlby: has contributed to the development of childcare practices. Encouraged the view that a women's place is at home with her children which could make some mothers guilty for wanting to return to work

Question 56

Ethical issues in socially sensitive research : Privacy

Answer 56

researcher might extract more information than the ps intended to give

Question 57

Ethical issues in SSR: confidentiality

Answer 57

ps may be less willing to give information in the future if confidentiality is breached

Question 58

Ethical issues in SSR: Valid methodology

Answer 58

Poor methodology leads to invalid findings E.g. MMR linked to autism

Question 59

Ethical issues in SSR: Deception

Answer 59

Self deception: Research can lead to people forming untrue stereotypes which can affect ones own performance Ps are lied to about the true aim or it is covered up

Question 60

Ethical issues in SSR: Informed consent

Answer 60

Telling ps what is involved to give them full knowledge on what they're expecting

Question 61

Ethical issues in SSR: Equitable treatment

Answer 61

Must be treated equitably Can't withhold resources that are vital for wellbeing Regardless of scientific usefulness

Question 62

Ethical issues in SSR: Scientific freedom

Answer 62

Duty vs obligation Duty to investigate Obligation not to harm

Question 63

Ethical issues in SSR: Ownership of data

Answer 63

Who really owns the data? researcher? university? funding company

Question 64

Ethical issues in SSR: Values

Answer 64

Psychologists differ in subjective vs objective approach to research Problems arise when researchers and recipient have differing opinion

Question 65

Ethical issues in SSR: Risk/benefit ratio

Answer 65

Risk and costs need to be minimised

Question 66

AO3 of SSR and Ethical implications in research

Answer 66

Some groups in society are missed out of research e.g. elderly, minorities which makes results unrepresentative Minorities could be marginalised and misrepresented. Could mean they miss out on potential benefits of research as well Issues focus on the individual which means SSR has increased potential to have further implications. Not sufficient to safeguard the individual Researchers engaging with the media. It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure their research is promoted in a socially sensitive way. Need to be aware of the possible uses of their research (abuse, discrimination, etc.)