new one Flashcards
Idiographic definition
focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature
Doesn’t seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others
Nomothetic definition
concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people
What research methods do idiographic approaches prefer and why?
case studies, unstructured interviews
Provide an in-depth insight into individual behaviour
AO3 of the idiographic approach
Weaknesses of using unscientific methods e.g. uncontrolled, hard to replicate, low generalisability
+ case study methods can be powerful in evaluating theories - KF exposed a limitation of MSM, leading to improvement on STM - WMM
- unscientific nature - hard to come up with justifiable generalisations, limits usefulness in practical applications such as diagnosis and treatments of mental disorders
What research methods do nomothetic approaches prefer and why?
research methods: experiments, correlational research
approach is scientific
Statistical and quantitative methods to analyse data
AO3 of nomothetic approach
Benefits of using scientific methods e.g. quantitative methods, controlled, reliable methods
Application of approach - biological approach using drug treatments for mental health issues e.g. OCD/depression
Many approaches in psychology adopt both an idiographic and nomothetic approach e.g. psychodynamic and cognitive
Idiographic examples
Case study KF in memory - STM of auditory information better than visual, STM consists of multiple components. KF = undermined model of MSM
Nomothetic examples
Biological approach e.g. OCD, depression as they pinpoint a biological factor e.g. neurotransmitters that are responsible for these disorders.
Behaviourist approach e.g. Pavlov and Skinner, experiments on animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical/operant) that is generalised to humans
Cognitive approach e.g. MSM applied to everyone
Nature definition
view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors
Locke = new born infants born as a tabula rasa (blank slate)
Nurture definition
behaviour is the product of environmental influences anything outside the body e.g. people, events, physical world
Heredity definition
process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next
Interactionist approach to nature vs nurture
where nature and nurture overlap and work together to shape human behaviour.
Examples of nature
Bowlby: children come into the world biologically programmed to attach in order to help survival
Example of nurture
explaining attachment through classical conditioning where infant attaches as they associate primary caregiver with pleasure e.g. food. Then attachment is maintained via operant conditioning
Examples of the interactionist approach
genetic disorder PKU which is expressed by recessive alleles however low protein diet for first 12 years can avoid it
AO3 of Nature vs nurture
Nature and nurture have become so complex; many psychologists see it as meaningless
Plomin et al: genetic influences on parental behaviour creates a particular environment which can determine aspects of behaviour e.g. parent with gene for mental health = unsettled home, child suffers mental health due to genetics, home life or both
Neural plasticity suggests how life experiences shape our biology
Maguire et al - London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus size
Blackmore and Cooper - Kittens raised in isolation seeing either vertical or horizontal stripes. When placed in world at 5 months, they couldn’t see lines of opposite orientation
Diathesis-stress model - born with a biological vulnerability such as a gene for depression but an environmental factor/stressor will trigger it
Research suggests not everyone with the gene will develop the disorder depression
Reductionist definition
belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts
Best way to look at behaviour is to break it down and use the simplest explanation to explain how it works
Holism definition
Human behaviour should be viewed as whole integrated experiences and not separate parts
Biological reductionism
biological psychologist attempt to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain using neurones, neurotransmitters etc.
Environmental reductionism
assume all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus-response association that complex behaviour is a series of S-R chains.
Example of holist approach
gestalt psychology (holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we see it as a whole rather than a collective part)
humanistic approach = react to stimuli as a whole
Example of the biological approach
OCD is caused by neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin
Example of environmental reductionism
behavioural approach to explaining phobias - caused by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
Levels of explanations and examples
Behaviour can be explained by different levels
Biological - OCD is caused by neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin
Psychological - OCD - obsessive thoughts
Cultural - Odd/irrational behaviours caused by OCD
AO3 of holism and reductionism
+ reductionist approaches = scientific, operationalisation by breaking behaviour down into measurable components, increased reliability
- many approaches are reductionist meaning they ignore other aspects of behaviour, oversimplifies variable
+ more beneficial stance when explaining behaviours that only occur in social contexts - Zimbardo’s conformity prison experiment
- lacks practical value as some holistic accounts of behaviour are hard to use due to complexity, may be vague and hard to know which factor is most influential when there are many
Androcentric definition
dominated by males. In the past, most psychologists were males and the theories they produce tend to be based around a male view on the world.
Alpha bias definition
exaggerate the differences between males and females
Beta bais
ignored or minimised sex differences. Theories often assume that findings from males can be equally applied to females
Gender bias definition
the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not real differences
Examples of Gender bias
Approaches: alpha bias as women are seen as inferior compared to males as Freud believed there was genuine differences between males and females. Young females were inferior to males as they suffered penis envy
Fight or flight: beta bias as they assumed male findings on applied to females.
Social influence: Zimbardo’s study conducted only on males and assumed conformity to roles is the same for females.
AO3 of gender bias
Taylor et al came up with a theory to overcome the beta bias. Development of tend and befriend
Abu Ghraib women in real life prison also were perpetrators of the abusive behaviour
Implications of gender bias research can be problematic and show that is isn’t just a methodological issue. Failing to challenge negative stereotypes Validation of discrimination
Illustrates that there are real biological differences between genders. Therefore, we need to review our facts about gender and use this to support women. Eagly: acknowledged women may be less effective leaders than males and this should be used to aid in training etc. to create more female leaders.
Free will definition
idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Individuals are free to choose their behaviours and are self determined.
Determinism definition
free will is an illusion, our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces over which we have no control
Soft determinism definition
behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make up but only to a certain extent
Hard determinism definition
forces outside of our control e.g. biological/past experiences shape our behaviour
Biological determinism definition
all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
Environmental determinism definition
behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual e.g. previous experiences - learnt through classical and operant conditioning
Psychic determinism definition
Claims human behaviour is the result of childhood and innate drives
Example of biological determinism
psychopathology - OCD is partly genetic. If 1st degree relative has OCD, 5x more likely to have OCD
Example of environmental determinism
psychopathology - phobias acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
Psychic determinist example
gender - gendered behaviours are acquired during the phallic stage or development through the oedipus complex where children identify with the same sex parents
Free will example
Within Maslows hierachy of need people are free agents to seek out the stages of the hierachy
AO3 of free will vs determinism
Concept of free will isn’t falsifiable. If psychology tries to be scientific, the concept of free will isn’t scientific as it can’t be falsified. You can’t test the idea of free will.
Universality definition
Research, theories and explanations often aim to represent universal human behaviour.
Cultural bias
If the ‘norm’ or ‘standard’ for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of a particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour that deviate from this standard will be seen as abnormal, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’
Ethnocentrism definition
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. At an extreme it is the belief that there is superiority of one’s own culture and this can lead to prejudice and discrimination
Cultural relativism definition
The idea that norms, values and ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.
Example of cultural bias - beta bias
Ainsworth Strange Situation reflects only the values of American culture
The idea of a secure attachment was shown as showing moderate distress etc upon separation in USA
In germany, they emphasise the independence so they appeared as ‘cold’
AO3 of cultural bias
western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behaviour they have observed from the context in which they observed it
Indigenous psychologies - development of different groups of theories in different countries
Afrocentrism: research in Africa need to be African centred and express African values
The increase in travel and community means there is an increase in understanding of other cultures. International conferences where researchers meet and exchange ideas should reduce the bias
Ethical issues definition
Issues that arise when there is conflict between the rights of the ps and the aims of the researcher
Ethical implications definition
Considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in wider context, not just the participants
Socially sensitivity definition
Socially sensitive to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the ps or the group of people represented by the research
4 things Sieber and Stanley say researchers should consider when conducting socially sensitive research
1) The research question
- most consider their question carefully e.g. are there racial differences in IQ? vs is intelligence inherited?
2) The methodology used
- researchers needs to consider the treatment of the ps and their rights to confidentiality and anonymity
3)The institutional context
- researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and who is funding the researc
4) Interpretation and application of the findings
- researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world
Example of socially sensitive research
Milgram
- results could be used to ensure that people obey orders, including those they don’t wish to follow
Ethical implications of Bowlby
Bowlby: has contributed to the development of childcare practices.
Encouraged the view that a women’s place is at home with her children which could make some mothers guilty for wanting to return to work
Ethical issues in socially sensitive research : Privacy
researcher might extract more information than the ps intended to give
Ethical issues in SSR: confidentiality
ps may be less willing to give information in the future if confidentiality is breached
Ethical issues in SSR: Valid methodology
Poor methodology leads to invalid findings
E.g. MMR linked to autism
Ethical issues in SSR: Deception
Self deception: Research can lead to people forming untrue stereotypes which can affect ones own performance
Ps are lied to about the true aim or it is covered up
Ethical issues in SSR: Informed consent
Telling ps what is involved to give them full knowledge on what they’re expecting
Ethical issues in SSR: Equitable treatment
Must be treated equitably
Can’t withhold resources that are vital for wellbeing
Regardless of scientific usefulness
Ethical issues in SSR: Scientific freedom
Duty vs obligation
Duty to investigate
Obligation not to harm
Ethical issues in SSR: Ownership of data
Who really owns the data?
researcher? university? funding company
Ethical issues in SSR: Values
Psychologists differ in subjective vs objective approach to research
Problems arise when researchers and recipient have differing opinion
Ethical issues in SSR: Risk/benefit ratio
Risk and costs need to be minimised
AO3 of SSR and Ethical implications in research
Some groups in society are missed out of research e.g. elderly, minorities which makes results unrepresentative
Minorities could be marginalised and misrepresented. Could mean they miss out on potential benefits of research as well
Issues focus on the individual which means SSR has increased potential to have further implications. Not sufficient to safeguard the individual
Researchers engaging with the media.
It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure their research is promoted in a socially sensitive way.
Need to be aware of the possible uses of their research (abuse, discrimination, etc.)
