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1
Q

Sex

A

Biologically determined - (Chromosomal, anatomical, hormonal).

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2
Q

Gender

A

Attitudes/behaviours associated with being male or female.

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3
Q

Gender identity disorder

A

When your sex and gender do not correspond.

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4
Q

Sex-role stereotypes

A

Social expectations shared by a culture/group about how males and females should behave.

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5
Q

Disadvantages of sex-role stereotypes

(Not be valid?)

A

They may or may not be valid, (may be incorrect in reality, leading to sexist and damaging attitudes).

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6
Q

Furnham and Farragher 2000

A

Studied TV adverts, confirming sex-role stereotypes in the media. Men are shown in autonomous/professional roles, while women are seen in domestic settings.

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7
Q

Androgyny

A

A balance of masculine and feminine behaviors/attitudes.

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8
Q

Bem 1974

A

Androgyny is a positive attribute - High androgyny is associated with psychological well-being. Someone with a balance of masculine and feminine traits are better equipped to a range of situations.

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9
Q

The Bem Sex Role Sex Inventory

A

Used for measuring androgyny. Items on the BSRI scale are masculine (e.g. dominant), feminine (e.g. gentle), or neutral (e.g. friendly). It has 60 questions on a 7-point scale. (1 = never true of me, 7 = always true of me).

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10
Q

A strength of the BSRI

(Valid?)

A

Has been found to be both reliable and valid. (Piloting the BSRI on over 1000 students confirmed that BSRI reflected their gender identity).

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11
Q

A limitation of the BSRI

(Simplified?)

A

Gender identity cannot be reduced to a single score. (It is a more global concept and we must also consider the person’s interests - The BSRI is overly simple).

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12
Q

A limitation of the BSRI

( Temporal + culture validity ?)

A

Lack of temporal and cultural validity. (The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago, and over that time expectations have changed with regards to gender and behaviour).

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13
Q

A limitation of the BSRI

(Subjective?)

A

Questionnaires are subjective and biased. (Responses may be influenced by social desirability bias/demand characteristics).

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14
Q

The role of chromosomes

A

Chromosome 23 determines biological sex.
The Y chromosome carries a gene called the ‘sex-determining region Y’ (SRY). This causes the testes to develop and androgens to be produced in a male embryo. (Female = XX, Male = XY).

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15
Q

The role of hormones

A

Gender development is governed by hormones.

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16
Q

Testosterone

A

Key role in male development and aggression.

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17
Q

Oestrogen

A

Key role in female development and behaviour. (Including menstruation).

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18
Q

Oxytocin

A

Implicated in lactation and bonding.

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19
Q

A strength of the role of hormones

(Dabbs et al?)

A

Research support - (Dabbs et al 1995). In a prison population, offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually-motivated crimes.

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20
Q

A limitation of the role of hormones

(Tricker et al?)

A

Some evidence is contradictory - (Tricker et al 1996). Gave males either 10-weekly injections of testosterone or a placebo and found no significant differences in aggression.

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21
Q

A limitation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

(Oversimplified?)

A

Biological accounts oversimplify a complex concept. They ignore alternative explanations for gender development like the cognitive approach and psychodynamic approach.

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22
Q

Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

Anatomically male, but with an additional X chromosome.

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23
Q

Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

Less body hair, some breast development, and small genitals.

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24
Q

Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

Poor language development, passive, shy, easily stressed, and poor problem solving skills.

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25
Q

Turner’s syndrome

A

Anatomically female, but with an absence of an X chromosome.

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26
Q

Physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

A

Infertility, a broad chest with no development of breasts, low-set ears, a webbed neck, and narrow hips.

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27
Q

Psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

A

Good language development, poor visual memory, poor mathematical skills, and socially immature.

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28
Q

A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns

(Innate?)

A

Has contributed to the nature-nurture debate. It suggests that innate influences have a powerful effect of psychology and behaviour.

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29
Q

A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns

(Herlihy 2011?)

A

The research has practical applications - (Herlihy et al 2011). Showed that individuals identified and treated from a very young age had significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood. Further research can increase the likelihood of an earlier diagnosis.

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30
Q

A limitation of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns

(Causation?)

A

Lack of causal relationship. We cannot assume from this research alone that observed psychological and behavioural differences are due to nature.

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31
Q

A limitation of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns

(Unrepresentative?)

A

The samples are unrepresentative and atypical. It makes it difficult to generalise from the cases studied to all people who may have the conditions, especially as life experiences may have a significant impact.

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32
Q

Kohlberg’s theory

A

A cognitive developmental approach. Piaget proposed that the way a child thinks changes with age. Kohlberg then identified three stages related to Piaget’s ideas.

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33
Q

Stage 1 - Gender identity

A

(From about 2 years old) - Children are able to label their own and others’ gender. They have no sense of the permanence of gender.

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34
Q

Stage 2 - Gender stability

A

(From about 4 years old) - Children understands their own gender stays the same, but find it hard to apply this to others.

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35
Q

Stage 3 - Gender constancy

A

(From about 6 years old) - Children understand gender stays the same across time and situations. They can apply this to other people too.
Gender constancy also marks the point at which children begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models to imitate.

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36
Q

A strength of Kohlberg’s theory

(Slaby + Frey?)

A

Supporting research evidence - (Slaby and Frey 1975). Showed children images of males and females doing the same tasks. Younger children spent equal time watching males and females. Children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at the same sex because they identified with them.

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37
Q

A strength of Kohlberg’s theory

(Biological?)

A

Support from the biological approach. Kohlberg’s stages are heavily influenced by changes in the developing child’s brain, and subsequent cognitive and intellectual maturation.

38
Q

A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory

( questionable validity?)

A

The validity of original interviews is questionable. They were conducted with children as young as 2 or 3 years old. The questions were tailored to their age. The children’s ideas about gender may have been more complex than they were able to articulate.

39
Q

A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory

(Bussey and Bandura?)

A

Gender-appropriate behaviour might begin earlier - (Bussey and Bandura 1992). Children as young as 4 years old reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys, and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite.

40
Q

Gender schema theory

A

Martin and Halverson - Understanding of gender changes with age. Gender schema contain and organise our knowledge of gender. They develop after the gender identity stage at around 2-3 years, with the child seeking information to develop schema. GST places emphasis on the search for gender-appropriate information starting earlier than Kohlberg suggested. Gender schema develop and determine behaviour. Children pay more attention to schema appropriate to their own gender, (ingroup), than those of the opposite sex, (outgroup).

41
Q

A strength of the GST

(In group schema?)

A

GST can explain young children’s rigid gender beliefs. Ingroup schema explains why children discount information that conflicts with existing schema in favour of information that confirms ingroup schema.

42
Q

A strength of the GST

(Stangor + ruble?)

A

It can compliment Kohlberg’s theory - (Stangor and Ruble 1989). Together the two theories can provide quite a detailed account of how gender development occurs.

43
Q

A limitation of the GST

(Oversimplified?)

A

The importance of schema has been exaggerated. It overlooks social factors. As a result, the theory oversimplifies the process of gender development.

44
Q

A limitation of the GST

(Link?)

A

There may be no link between schema and behaviour, schema do not always determine behaviour.

45
Q

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

A

The ‘phallic stage’ is the key time for gender development. (3-6 years). He believes that in the ‘pre-phallic stage’, children have no concept of gender identity. They are seen as bisexual.

46
Q

The Oedipus complex

A

(In boys) - When children have feelings for their mother and are jealous of their father. However, they recognise that their father is more powerful, so fear castration.

47
Q

The Electra complex

A

(In girls) - They experience ‘penis envy’, as they feel in competition with their mother for their father’s love. The child also resents their mother because they believe that she is responsible for their lack of a penis.

48
Q

Resolution of conflict

A

Through identification with same-sex parent. Identification leads to ‘internalisation of parents’ identity’. Boys adopt the attitudes of their father, and girls adopt the attitudes of their mother.

49
Q

Little Hans

A

A case study that illustrates the Oedipus complex. He had a fear of being bitten by a horse after seeing one collapse and die in the street. Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’ fear of horses represented his actual fear of being castrated by his father, because of Hans’ love for his mother.

50
Q

A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation

(Blackemore and hill?)

A

Lack of support for the Oedipus complex - (Blakemore and Hill 2008). They found that the reverse was true, and boys with liberal fathers tended to be more secure in their masculinity. Therefore, it has limited validity.

51
Q

A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation

(Horney?)

A

Freud’s theory does not fully explain female development - (Horney 1967). He argued that men’s womb envy was more prominent, and that Freud’s idea of penis envy merely reflects the era he lived and worked in.

52
Q

A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation

(Golombok?)

A

The theory relies on a child having different-gender parents. If this is not the case, we’d expect an adverse effect on the child’s gender development. Golombok et al. (1983), found that children from single-parent families went on to develop normal gender identities. Therefore, it is suggested that typical gender development does not require two parents of different genders.

53
Q

A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation

(Unfalsifiable?)

A

Freud’s methods of investigation lack scientific rigour. His accounts are based on unconscious concepts which make the theory untestable. Therefore, it is less valued than other theories that can be empirically tested.

54
Q

Social learning explanation

A

Gender is learned by observation and reinforcement in a social context, with gender-appropriate behaviours being differentially reinforced in boys and girls.

55
Q

Vicarious reinforcement and punishment

A

If children see certain behaviours being rewarded, e.g. a little girl sees their mum being complimented for wearing make-up and a dress, then that behaviour is more likely to be imitated (vicarious reinforcement). If a child sees a behaviour being punished, e.g. a boy seeing another boy being picked on for acting ‘girly’, then the behaviour is less likely to be imitated (punishment).

56
Q

Identifying with role models

A

Children will identify with role models around them, e.g. parents, teachers etc.

57
Q

‘Modelling’

A

Behaviour can be modelled and then imitated. E.g. A mother may model stereotypically female behaviour like setting the table for dinner, and when a girl copies her mother setting the table, she is modelling the behaviour she has observed.

58
Q

Mediational processes

A

The cognitive factors that determine the production of an observed behaviour.
1) Attention
2) Retention
3) Motivation
4) Motor reproduction

59
Q

A strength of the social learning explanation

Smith and Lloyd 1978

A

There is supporting evidence for differential reinforcement - (Smith and Lloyd 1978). Observed adults with 4-6 month old babies who were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes, and half the time in girls’ clothes. The babies in girls’ clothes were encouraged to play with dolls etc, while the babies in boys’ clothes were encouraged to play with hammer-shaped rattles etc.

60
Q

A strength of the social learning explanation

(Complete?)

A

The SLT can help explain changing gender roles. It means SLT offers a more complete explanation of recent gender development than other alternatives.

61
Q

A limitation of the social learning explanation

(Does not consider biological)

A

It does not fully consider biological factors. The case of David Reimer suggests that it is not possible to override biological influence. So SLT only provides a partial explanation of the process of gender development.

62
Q

A limitation of the social learning explanation

(Unconscious influences?)

A

It cannot explain unconscious influences. Both SLT and Freud explain gender development through ‘identification’ with same-sex individuals, but the theories differ in the level of consciousness. SLT suggests that mediational processes are conscious, whereas Freud talked in terms of unconscious processes. The assumption that our gender behaviour is determined by factors within our control, may be a limitation of SLT.

63
Q

Culture and gender roles

A

If a behaviour is consistent across cultures, we see it as being due to nature. If a behaviour is culturally specific, we see it as being due to nurture.

64
Q

The role of nurture - Mead 1935

A

Researched tribal groups of New Guinea which supported the cultural determination of gender roles.
1) Arapesh: Gentle and responsive.
2) Mundugumor: Aggressive and hostile.
3) Tchambuli: Women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be decorative.

65
Q

The role of nature - Buss 1994

A

Found consistent mate preferences in 37 countries studied across all continents. In all cultures: women sought men offering wealth and resources, while men looked for youth and physical attractiveness.

66
Q

The media and gender roles

A

Children are likely to imitate same-sex role models who are engaging in gender-appropriate behaviour.

67
Q

Bussey and Bandura 1999

A

Found that the media provides clear gender stereotypes, e.g. men as independent and women as dependent.

68
Q

Furnham and Farragher 2000

A

Found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, while women were seen in domestic settings.

69
Q

McGhee and Frueh 1980

A

Found children who had more exposure to the media, presented with more stereotypical behaviour.

70
Q

A limitation of the influence of culture and media

(Western theory?)

A

Imposed etic may affect the validity of the findings. Cross-cultural research is typically undertaken by Western researchers, using theories and methods developed in the West. Therefore, it is suggested that they impose their own understanding upon the people they are studying. As a result, conclusions may not be valid.

71
Q

A limitation of the influence of culture and media

(Correlation?)

A

It is correlational. Media output might be reflecting social norms about males and females, but it could also be that media is the cause of such norms.

72
Q

A limitation of the influence of culture and media

(Doesn’t resolve nature/nurture

A

It does not resolve the nature-nurture debate. It is likely that the true explanation of gender development will be a constant interaction between both nature and nurture.

73
Q

A limitation of the influence of culture and media

(Freeman 1983?)

A

Mead’s findings have been challenged. In a follow up study of Samoan people, Freeman (1983) claimed that Mead mislead participants, and had been heavily influenced by preconceptions. This then raised questions over the quality of the research.

74
Q

Atypical gender development

A

Gender identity disorder, (GID), occurs where sex and gender do not correspond, and is a psychological disorder in the DSM-5.

75
Q

Brain sex theory

(Zhou et al?)

A

Suggests that GID is caused by brain areas that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex. Zhou et al. (1995), studied the ‘bed nucleus of the stria terminalis central division’ (BSTc). This is 40% larger in males than females. Post-mortem studies of six male-to-female transgender individuals had a BSTc of the typical female size.

76
Q

Genetic basis for GID

(Coolidge?)

A

Coolidge et al. (2002) - Found GID prevalence of 2.3% in a sample of twins, and suggested that 62% of these cases could be accounted for by genetic variance.
Heylens et al. (2012) - Found nine of their sample of MZ twins were concordant for GID; but none of the DZs were.

77
Q

Psychoanalytical theory

A

Male GID is caused by a child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established.

78
Q

Gender schema theory (GST)

A

Explains that counter-stereotypical activities create androgynous schema. Liben and Bigler (2002) - extended the gender schema theory to include 2 pathways.
1) First pathway - Gender schema are learned and these direct gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour, as part of a ‘normal’ development.
2) Second ‘personal’ pathway - Personal interests may become more dominant and this in turn influences a child’s gender schema. (E.g. a boy who plays with dolls may come to believe that playing with dolls is for boys as well as for girls). This leads to androgynous behaviour and in a small minority may lead to GID.

79
Q

A limitation of atypical gender development

A

The brain sex theory assumptions have been criticised - Hulshoff Pol et al. (2006). Transgender hormone therapy affected the size of the BSTc, which means that differences in transgender brains may be due to the therapy rather than a cause of GID.

80
Q

A limitation of atypical gender development

A

+ Kruijver et al found that the number of neurones in the BSTc (a region of the brain) in transgender women was similar to the number in cisgender women.
+ Hare et al found that transgender women were more likely than cisgender men to have a particular version of an androgen receptor gene.
- Chung et al found sex differences in the BSTc didn’t appear until adulthood, so they may be a result of gender developing not a cause.
- Most girls with CAH don’t develop GD.
- Other factors like social influences.

81
Q

describe the phallic stage

A

The libido (sex drive) is directed towards playing with one’s own genitals.
Start to be aware that males and females are different.
Need parents of both sexes in order to resolve oedipus complex (boys) and electra complex (girls).

82
Q

Boys = Oedipus - unconscious conflict

A

The id wants to possess mum sexually.
Id sees dad as a rival for mum’s attention.
The ego realises that dad is more powerful and starts to fear castration.
This unconscious conflict is resolved by using the defense mechanism of repression to deal with the sexual feelings about the mum.
In addition, the boy identifies with the aggressor (dad).
He then internalises dad’s gender and male characteristics.
If oedipus is resolved, then the little boy now has a strong masculine identity and also develops his morality (Super-ego) at the same time.
He also displaces his sexual feeling he once had for his mum onto other females.
According to Freud a strong internalised sense of male gender internalised makes the boy active and dominant.

83
Q

Girls = Electra - unconscious conflict

A

During the electra Complex girls become aware that they do not have a penis.
They think mum has castrated them so start to blame her for their own lack of power. The girl wants to have a penis as it is a symbol of power.
This penis envy leads the id to desire their father sexually because he has what she wants.
She realises that she cannot grow her own penis so the id converts her penis envy in a desire for a baby (the penis-baby making project).
The girl’s id wants her father to provide the baby hence why she lusts after her father.
The girl’s ego resolves this by identifying with the mother but girls do this in a more passive way than boys identify with their fathers. This leads females internalising a quieter and more passive gender role.

84
Q

identification and internalisation

A

Boys and girls resolve the above conflicts by identifying with their same sex parent. This allows them to internalise their gender identity and role.
This is different to social learning theory as psychodynamic theory argued that a child must identify with their same sex parent in order to develop their gender identity whereas SLT would support the idea that children can identify with any same sex role model

85
Q

Support for Psychodynamic theory of gender development:

A

The case study of Little hans
He had a fear of horses and feared being bitten by one and also feared one falling down.
Freud said the horse was really a symbol for his dad. The fear of being bitten was really a fear of castration and fear of the horse falling down was really Little Han’s wanting his dad dead.
Why? Because Little Hans was going through the phallic stage and going through Oedipus.
Freud predicted that this would be resolved and Little Han’s would start to identify with dad and internalise his dad’s masculine gender identity and develop a sense of masculinity and then repress his feelings for his mum into the unconscious mind.

86
Q

Evaluation of little hans

A

Freud predicted that a boy raised by a lone mum would fail in the phallic stage and not resolve the oedipus complex. This would mean they would not develop a strong masculine gender identity or develop their schema. We now know that boys raised by lone mothers still develop a normal masculine gender identity. There is no empirical evidence to support Freud’s theory.

87
Q

Further Evaluations of the psychodynamic approach - cog approach

A

Cognitive development theory would argue that gender develops over several years as the child goes through the 3 main stages. Therefore, gender is not acquired in one fell swoop during one relatively short stage as Freud suggested.
The psychodynamic approach argues that children are gender neutral before resolving oedipus or electra during the phallic psycho-sexual stage of development. Cognitive theory would argue that children have quite an awareness about gender well before 5 years of age as shown by the fact many prefer to play with sex stereotypical toys.
Cognitive focuses on the conscious rather than the unconscious mind.

88
Q

Further Evaluations of the psychodynamic approach - bio approach

A

The biological approach would agree that gender is driven by nature. However, Freud argues that children need to also have certain nurturing experienced i.e. have parents of both sexes in order to develop their gender identity.
Bio theory would argue that sex chromosomes and hormones completely determine a child’s gender identity and that a child’s sex is already programmed into their genetics. Therefore, according to the bio theory they do not need to resolve oedipus or electra.

89
Q

General eval for psychodynamic

A
  • Case study research method is seen as unscientific by modern psychologists, issues of subjectivity & generalisability
  • Stevenson and Black (1972) found children develop normally when raised in father absent families, Green (1972) normal gender development when raised by lesbian parents this can’t be explained by Freud’s theory.
  • Lacks temporal validity when the theory was constructed non-nuclear / single gender families were rare
  • Lack of testability: Unconscious process such as the Oedipus complex cant be tested (not falsifiable), so unscientific
  • Martin and Little (1990) found evidence for gender toy/clothes preference at 3, far earlier than the Oedipus complex.
  • Other explanations for gender development such as cognitive, biological & social have more supporting research
90
Q

describe the phallic stage

A

The libido (sex drive) is directed towards playing with one’s own genitals.
Start to be aware that males and females are different.
Need parents of both sexes in order to resolve oedipus complex (boys) and electra complex (girls).

91
Q

Gender develops in which psycho-sexual stage?

A

phallic

92
Q

a child has no gender identity at what age

A

0-3 years

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