New Industries and Edwardian Boom, 1896-1914

Question 1

Who claimed Britain’s industrial structure to be “one of the most outstanding features of the prewar economy”

Answer 1

M. W. Kirby claimed Britain’s industrial structure to be “one of the most outstanding features of the prewar economy”

Question 2

By 1907 how much of industrial output came from old industries?

Answer 2

approximately 50% of total industrial output in 1907 was accounted for by old industries

Question 3

What was occurring to the markets of old industries in the prewar era?

Answer 3

Old industries were having to increasingly rely on a narrow export market range (mainly empire and informal colonies)

Question 4

What is one interpretation of the old and new industries in prewar Britain?

Answer 4

Some historians claim that bias towards old staples was an ‘over-commitment’ to technologically static industries with low growth potential

Question 5

What industries does M. W. Kirby consider to be ‘wave of the future’?

Answer 5

industries which used new scientific instruments and advanced processes alongside new organisation methods etc.

Question 6

Outline the climacteric thesis which is often applied to Edwardian economics:

Answer 6

The climacteric thesis means the ‘decline’ thesis of productivity and output in industry

Question 7

What is a thesis in opposition to the traditional climacteric thesis?

Answer 7

Other historians have conceded that the climacteric thesis applies to exports, but that regarding output it is clear that productivity growth was dependent upon tech advancements, which were small but commonplace

Question 8

What is one focal point of the over-commitment interpretation of old industries in Edwardian Britain?

Answer 8

Historians often query why in response to foreign competition and narrowing markets Britain went into new and less prosperous markets instead of diversifying the economy

Question 9

What is one argument often applied to the perseverance of old industries well into the twentieth century?

Answer 9

Many historians often turn to the ‘early start’ argument- Britain had industrialised before its competitors- who were now industrialising on much more modern terms

Question 10

What is the issue with the ‘early start’ interpretation of the Edwardian economy?

Answer 10

Surely the pioneering economy should be able to maintain its trailblazing nature? The countries which industrialised on modern terms had equal issues with the entanglement of capital

Question 11

What is a secondary explanation for the prevailing of new industries into the Edwardian era?

Answer 11

Some historians highlight the collective failures of industrialists to move away from “safe” imperial markets and traditional staple industry production and practice

Question 12

What contributed to the shrinking of overseas markets for Britain?

Answer 12

British businesses had little marketing or advertisement presences abroad, whereas other nations were aided by consulates / marketing teams

Question 13

Is the third generation decline argument applicable to the continuation of old industries into the Edwardian era?

Answer 13

Sort of. Historians have certainly applied it, highlighting the refusal to reorganise labour etc and instead just cut wages, but exogenous market factors were just as to blame

Question 14

How can failures of entrepreneurship be analysed?

Answer 14

Entrepreneurship failures can be analysed through looking at rationalisation of industry (i.e. techniques and organisation)

Question 15

How did J. M. Keynes characterise the period 1870-1914?

Answer 15

Keynes said of the period 1870-1914 that it was “an extraordinary episode in the economic progress of man”,

Question 16

How can the prevailing of old industries be summarised into one sentence?

Answer 16

it was commercial stability based upon pax Britannica, this allowed new industries to develop in a relatively safe environment

Question 17

Outline the importance of cotton to British exports in 1850 and 1913?

Answer 17

In 1850 cotton was worth 50.7% of the total value of exports, by 1913 it was worth only 24.1% of the total value of exports

Question 18

What was the volume growth of coal between 1880-1913?

Answer 18

Coal grew from 147mil tonnes to 287mil tonnes in the period 1880-1913

Question 19

What was a cause for the shrinking export movements?

Answer 19

The instalment of tariffs across Europe and America to protect growing domestic industries forced Britain to rely on the traditional market of the empire- ie settled colonies

Question 20

What does the term ‘Zollverein’ mean?

Answer 20

Zollverein refers to a customs union

Question 21

What are two flaws with the concept of the British imperial Zollverein argument?

Answer 21

1. An imperial Zollverein was an antithesis to the City’s cosmopolitan capitalism and growing market interests. 2. Tariff protections favouring the empire may have been good for mets, but had little appeal for cotton and shipbuilding which had expanding markets 1904-14

Question 22

What does M. W. Kirby highlight as the overall role of international economic change?

Answer 22

M. W. Kirby argues that Britain’s transition to a diversified economic structure being smooth was wholly dependent on a stable and expanding international economy

Question 23

What shows the consumerist culture emerging in the Edwardian era?

Answer 23

Gordon Selfridge opened Selfridges in 1909, service sector had rapid employment increases

Question 24

What can be said of the changes in domestic demand in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras?

Answer 24

Changes in demand were met by changes in manufacturing, transport and distribution.

Question 25

Who claims that there was a retailing revolution 1850-1914?

Answer 25

The idea of a ‘retailing revolution’ comes from W. H. Fraser

Question 26

What hindered economic advancement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

Answer 26

Repressive legislation which was in force from 1865-96 discouraged the development of new industries and overall diversification of the economy

Question 27

When does T. May believe there to have been a turning point in the diversification of the British economy?

Answer 27

T. May thinks that around 1900, Britain began to ‘make good’ of its late start at diversifying

Question 28

What did S. Sayer claim in regards to contemporary interest in the motorcar industry?

Answer 28

For S. Sayers, cars were “the toy not of every rich man, but only of those with a taste for mechanical things”

Question 29

What fact highlights the lack of interest in motorcars in prewar Britain?

Answer 29

one country town of 16,000 had only 4 cars

Question 30

Why was electricity slow to catch on?

Answer 30

Electricity provided a supply for a demand already been met by gas power, which in the case of light was still 10x more effective than electricity

Question 31

Where did electricity see significant headway?

Answer 31

In railways and trams- between 1897 and 1906 2000 miles of electrified tram rail was built

Question 32

What is a common interpretation of the British electrical industry?

Answer 32

Historians such as I. Byatt claim that the British electrical industry was not an industry on its one at all, but an offshoot of foreign companies in Britain

Question 33

Where was Britain a leading producer and why?

Answer 33

Britain was a leading producer in the chemicals industry (3rd), because any economy could find a niche product in which they could perfect technique

Question 34

How can we prove Britain’s success in the chemicals industry?

Answer 34

Nobel’s explosives factory in Scotland was the latest in the world, producing 10,000 tonnes pa in 1880s

Question 35

What is an example of British industrialists refusing to change methodologies in light of international developments

Answer 35

British industrialists clung to the traditional Leblanc process in alkali production despite the Solvay process producing 1.65mil tonnes by 1902 compared to 150,000 Leblanc

Question 36

What was the damage done by chemical industrialists refusing to change?

Answer 36

Not that much damage, the industry continued until 1920s because of incremental improvements long-term which other economies hadn’t done and because of business amalgamations improving production

Question 37

In electricity how much of British industry was actually foreign?

Answer 37

By 1914, 3/4 of all major British firms were offshoots of foreign firms such as Siemens, Westinghouse and GE.

Question 38

What does R. S. Sayers claim about technological change?

Answer 38

R. S. Sayers claims that ‘technological progress does not occur smoothly’ - this is what was happening in the prewar era

Question 39

What was the nature of new and old exports?

Answer 39

In the Edwardian era, 35% of exports went to the empire- but this proportion was higher for old industries, new industries were moving into the empire too

Question 40

What does R. S. Sayers claim about the nature of international trade?

Answer 40

R. S. Sayers claims that 1900-1914 the terms of trade were against Britain, so there was a need to innovate/ rely on the home market such as with bicycles

Question 41

How was the engineering industry supported in the Edwardian era?

Answer 41

Engineering was supported by the demand generated by bicycles and electrical engineering which required more engineering capacity

Question 42

What can be said about British reliance on exports?

Answer 42

Although exports had an important role in reviving industries in the late Victorian / early Edwardian era, industries were maintained by domestic trade

Question 43

What industries undoubtedly developed from domestic interest before overseas interests?

Answer 43

The tram and the underground certainly developed from domestic interest before overseas interest

Question 44

What caused a mid-1900s general decline of home trade?

Answer 44

A general decline of home trade in the mid-1900s was caused by a fall in incomes from the export trades until 1907.

Question 45

What was the impact of America during the Edwardian era?

Answer 45

America influenced Britain via its conditions of supply and fluctuations in demand

Question 46

How can America’s impact on the Edwardian economy be shown?

Answer 46

There was a revival of home trade because of incomes in export trades being revived when America recovered financial collapse in 1909, and America played a big role as competition and encouragement for new industries

Question 47

What happened to the shipping industry in the Edwardian era?

Answer 47

In 1911 the shipping industry surpassed its record-breaking 1906 export- due to the rapid modernisation internationally

Question 48

How much of the population remained in old industries in the Edwardian era?

Answer 48

1/4 of the occupied population was still in old industries- there was no indication that these industries would default / were decaying

Question 49

When was the Singer sewing machine factory built in Britain?

Answer 49

The British Singer sewing machine factory was built in Glasgow in 1867

Question 50

When did the Singer Sewing machine factory begin to use British rather than American parts?

Answer 50

The Glasgow Singer sewing machine factory began to use British rather than American parts in the 1870s

Question 51

By 1880, how many sewing machines were being produced at the Glasgow Singer sewing machine factory?

Answer 51

By 1880, 5000 sewing machines were being produced per week- output was higher than America

Question 52

How does S. B. Saul characterise the late Victorian economy?

Answer 52

S. B. Saul claims that there wasn’t technological decline, new industries were merely in their infancy

Question 53

How can Britain’s global lead in the textile machinery industry right up to 1914 be shown?

Answer 53

Britain’s global lead in the textile machinery industry right up to 1914 can be shown by Platt’s firm employing 12,000 having a higher output than all of America

Question 54

How does S. B. Saul characterise railways with regards to engineering?

Answer 54

S. B. Saul characterises railways as ‘universities of mechanical engineering’

Question 55

What was the difference between British success in industry and America’s lower output rates?

Answer 55

America had lower output rates than Britain (e.g. Glasgow had 3/4 largest locomotive building firms) because America was too dispersed to engender rationalisation

Question 56

What was the role of Indian railways in stimulating the British economy?

Answer 56

Britain could mass produce steam engines, but post-1900 there were attempts to standardise orders for the Indian market

Question 57

What was an overall issue with British engineering in the Edwardian era?

Answer 57

In the Edwardian era and before, the British engineering industry focused on quality- this was considered a proud career- but a lot of markets were moving away from less at higher quality

Question 58

How can it be shown that there was little indication of old industries’ decay in the Edwardian era?

Answer 58

The total number of flour mills was falling from 10,500 -> 8,900 approx. Late Victorian era, but by 1908 E. R. & F. Turner decided to specialise in just flour mill equipment- 460 roller mills erected in the era

Question 59

What can be said about Edwardian agricultural machinery?

Answer 59

British Edwardian harvesting machinery was <10% of McCormick alone in America, but this wasn’t bad- there wasn’t a huge domestic demand and British firms were content with small jobbing

Question 60

By 1900 how much had the Glasgow Singer factory’s output increased by?

Answer 60

By 1900 Glasgow’s Singer factory’s output had increased by a further 50%

Question 61

By 1879 how many firms were making bicycles?

Answer 61

By 1879 there were 60 firms producing bicycles, these declined/ amalgamated/ diversified which helped standardise etc the industry

Question 62

What was the relationship between financiers and the bicycle industry?

Answer 62

The cycle boom attracted investors- such as Raleigh receiving an injection of capital in 1889 from a man who cycled for his health

Question 63

Who claims that small metals trades provided the ideal background for the development of bicycles and other new industries?

Answer 63

G. C. Allen claims that the small metals trades provided the ideal background for the development of bicycles and other new industries

Question 64

What were two key techniques which the bicycle industry established in British production?

Answer 64

The bicycle industry popularised milling and grinding techniques as well as the differential gear which was used in the motor car industry

Question 65

How did Edwardian Britain move from steam to diesel engines? What is an issue with this?

Answer 65

Edwardian Britain moved from steam to diesel slowly- in 1914 3 major shipbuilding firms ignored diesel because it was perceived to be a sideline for quick profits rather than a serious long term innovation

Question 66

How was the Edwardian mindset of diesel engines being a sideline for profits rather than a serious innovation changed?

Answer 66

The mindset of diesel engines not being seen as a serious innovation was broken by two traditional and conservative bastions of economic practice encouraging investment

Question 67

What traditional and conservative bastions of economic practice encouraged innovation into Diesel engines?

Answer 67

The Navy in their demand for faster engines, and the Lloyds Chief Engineer Surveyor’s publicising of the advantages of Diesel engines helped change the British mindset

Question 68

Where was the petrol engine developed?

Answer 68

Although Britain contributed innovations such as the differential gear to the motorcar industry, the petrol engine was developed on the continent

Question 69

What could explain a lack of domestic demand for motorcars in the Edwardian era?

Answer 69

It could perhaps be the case that there was such lacking demand (e.g. 4 cars in a town of 16,000) because of the effectiveness of internal public transport)

Question 70

How many French cars were exported to Britain in 1904?

Answer 70

In 1904, Britain took 1/3 of the French motorcar industry

Question 71

What was the total output of the British motorcar industry by 1907, and 1913?

Answer 71

By 1907, the total output of the British motorcar industry was 11,700, by 1913: 34,000 cars

Question 72

In 1900, how many carmakers were there in Britain, how many survived until 1913?

Answer 72

In 1900 there were 53 carmakers, 22 survived until 1913

Question 73

When was the motorcar industry stagnant?

Answer 73

The motorcar industry was stagnant 1908-9

Question 74

What was the increase in the value of output for the motorcar industry 1907-1912?

Answer 74

The value of outputs in the motorcar industry in 1907 was £139,000 - in 1912 the value of outputs was £1,631,000

Question 75

What was an issue with the narrow nature of the prewar motorcar industry?

Answer 75

The prewar motorcar industry was arguably clouded by class hostility- cars were seen as the rich mans car

Question 76

What can be said about historical arguments of overcommitment?

Answer 76

There was no grounds to divert inputs away from old industries because they were buoyant, however a commitment to old production techniques certainly proved problematic

Question 77

What was an issue with the prevailing use of consulting engineers?

Answer 77

Using consulting engineers as a creative force (between customer-builder) meant that theoretical knowledge of CEs could not be combined with deep practical knowledge

Question 78

Why did Consulting Engineers not focus on economic productivity?

Answer 78

As they were CONSULTING engineers they were acting on their own, rather than the firm’s, reputation, they therefore preferred to credit their skill rather than economise

Question 79

What complicated replacement investment in the British economy and thus contributed to issues of CEs?

Answer 79

Replacement investment was complicated by complicated accountancy systems and high labour costs- a reorganisation of firm practice needed to occur before replacement stuff could be bought

Question 80

Who claims that electricity did not develop slowly in Britain?

Answer 80

I. Byatt claims that electricity did not develop slowly in Britain- although he concedes that it did in trams

Question 81

When did electric lighting have a false start?

Answer 81

Electric lighting in Britain had a false start in the 1880s

Question 82

When did Britons begin to invest in and see the benefits of power stations?

Answer 82

Power stations began being invested in and considered seriously in the 1890s

Question 83

When did investment in power stations exceed £2 million?

Answer 83

Investment in power stations only exceed £2 million in 1896

Question 84

What was the difference between investment in electricity in the 1890s versus 1900s?

Answer 84

In 1890-5 £2 million was invested in power supply, in 1900-5 £33 million was invested in the power supply

Question 85

What was the dispersion of electricity by 1903?

Answer 85

By 1903, all but 2 towns over 100,000 in population had electricity

Question 86

When was the London underground network completed?

Answer 86

The London Underground Network was completed in 1907

Question 87

How much did electricity make up of mining and manufacturing power in 1907 versus in 1912?

Answer 87

In 1907, electricity provided 1/9 of power in mining and manufacturing, while in 1912 electricity provided 1/4 of power in mining and manufacturing

Question 88

What was the only type of electricity that flourished prior to the close of the prewar era?

Answer 88

Telegraph companies and cable makers had remarkable continual success in the Victorian and Edwardian eras, although again they were led by foreign firms

Question 89

What is an example of rare proactivity of British electrical firms against foreign firms?

Answer 89

Mather & Platt in 1888 got Directors of the City and South London Railway to use electric not cable traction, while the Electric Construction Corporation created the first electric overhead railway in Liverpool

Question 90

What shows the disinterest of British engineers in electrical engineering that I. Byatt suggests exists?

Answer 90

A disinterest of British engineers can be seen in their rejection of international moves towards the low maintenance Alternating Current Factory Motor

Question 91

What happened in the Edwardian era with regards to electrical firms?

Answer 91

Electrical firms that existed pre-1900 expanded, particularly foreign ones with £3.4 million being spent on 4 GE factories in 1904

Question 92

How many generators in electricity stations were imported in 1907, and how many generators were imported in 1910?

Answer 92

In 1907 6% of generators in electricity stations were imported, in 1910 20% of generators in electricity stations were imported

Question 93

What was the nature of smaller British-run electrical firms?

Answer 93

British run electrical firms turned to overseas markets and sold less sophisticated goods than foreign firms in Britain

Question 94

Was the specialism of smaller British run electrical firms a bad thing?

Answer 94

The specialism of British run electrical firms was not a bad thing: the Lancashire Dynamo & Motor Co in 1907 claimed profits were high enough to pay 8.5% dividends for 6 years

Question 95

What was the difference between specialisms in large foreign firms versus small British firms?

Answer 95

While the Siemens Bros Dynamo works lost £700,000 on assets of £1 million 1906-16, whereas the Lancashire Dynamo Works could consistently pay dividends of 8.5%

Question 96

How successful were British cable makers in the Edwardian era?

Answer 96

telegraphic cables had consistent export rates of £1-2 million in value from 1880-1914, imports never matched this

Question 97

How can we characterise the lamp industry?

Answer 97

The British lamp industry was an offshoot of foreign industries, and had a consistent import surplus especially from Germany

Question 98

What was the average turnover of British run large electrical companies?

Answer 98

The average turnover of larger British electrical companies was £200,000

Question 99

What was the average turnover of foreign run large electrical companies

Answer 99

The average turnover of foreign run large electrical companies like GE and siemens was £2.5 million

Question 100

How can tension between businessmen and engineers be shown?

Answer 100

Tension between businessmen and engineers can be shown in the ECC management change of 1893 where the Board felt ‘extravagant experimentation’ had caused financial trouble

Question 101

How can difficulties with British traditional industrial organisation be shown?

Answer 101

Difficulties with British traditions in industry can be shown by the British Westinghouse being so poorly managed that in 1905 George Westinghouse sent his immediate assistant to review the Manchester firm

Question 102

How does I. Byatt characterise British electrical manufacturing?

Answer 102

I. Byatt claims that British electrical manufacturing was not a viable domestic industry in its own right