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neuroscience & psychology :) Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two types of cells in the nervous system?

A

neurons and glia

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2
Q

what do glial cells do?

A

support neurons

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3
Q

what is the central nervous system (cns)?

A

the integral part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord

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4
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system (pns)?

A

the neurons outside of the cns; sensory and motor neurons which, respectively, bring signals into the brain and carry signals out of the brain

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5
Q

how are pns neurons that are located in the cns still able to transfer signals?

A

neurons have axons (long extensions) that connect to the muscles

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6
Q

what is innervating?

A

connecting neurons with a certain part of the body; supplying an organ or other body part with nerves

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7
Q

what are nerves?

A

the axons of multiple peripheral neurons that follow a common route

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8
Q

what are sensory neurons?

A

neurons that send information to the cns about what’s going on inside and outside of your body so that your brain can process it

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9
Q

what are motor neurons?

A

neurons that get information from other neurons to control your muscles, organs, and glands

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10
Q

what are interneurons?

A

neurons that are found only in the cns and connect one neuron to the other, sending the same signals to different places to control both reflexes and complex reactions

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11
Q

what is the difference between dendrites and axons?

A

they are both processes (extensions of neurons) but dendrites are shorter, tend to taper down (i.e. decrease in diameter), have bumps called spines, and have no myelin sheath.

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12
Q

how do neurons receive signals?

A

through their dendritic trees. those signals then get conducted down the axon

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13
Q

what are synapses?

A

connections between dendrites of different neurons to transmit information from one (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)

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14
Q

how is information transmitted through synapses?

A

neurotransmitters bind to membrane receptors on the postsynaptic neuron to convey a signal

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15
Q

what are Purkinje cells?

A

cells in the cerebellum with an extremely large dendritic tree that can receive thousands of signals and inputs

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16
Q

what happens when sensory neurons connect with motor neurons?

A

the signal from the sensory input will be sent to the motor neuron and cause a certain movement

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17
Q

what glial cells are in the cns?

A

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia

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18
Q

what glial cells are in the pns?

A

Schwann cells

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19
Q

what do astrocytes do?

A

regulate blood flow in the brain, maintain fluid that surrounds neurons, regulate synaptic communication between neurons, help with transportation of neurons, and establish a blood-brain barrier to prevent toxins from the blood from entering the brain

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20
Q

what do microglia do?

A

clean up debris and dead cells in the brain

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21
Q

what do oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells do?

A

generate myelin for the axonal myelin sheath

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22
Q

what do satellite glial cells do?

A

cover the cell bodies of pns ganglia, possibly as a protective barrier

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23
Q

what do ependymal glial cells do?

A

promote circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

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24
Q

what are ganglia?

A

clusters of neurons

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25
Q

what is permeability?

A

the ability of a membrane to be crossed, or permeated, through diffusion

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26
Q

how do neurons transmit electrical signals?

A

through brief changes in the permeability of the neuron which allows ions to enter

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27
Q

what is membrane potential?

A

the difference in electric potential on the inside and outside of a cell

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28
Q

what is the resting membrane potential of neurons?

A

around -30 to -90 thousandths of a volt

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29
Q

what is a depolarized membrane potential?

A

membrane potential that is more positive than the resting membrane potential

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30
Q

what is a hyperpolarized membrane potential?

A

membrane potential that is more negative than the resting membrane potential

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31
Q

what electrical signals do neurons use to communicate?

A

hyperpolarizations or depolarizations of the resting membrane potential

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32
Q

what are cations?

A

positively charged neurons

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33
Q

what are anions?

A

negatively charged neurons

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34
Q

what are the most common ions in neurons?

A

sodium, potassium, organic anions, and chloride

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35
Q

how is resting potential determined?

A

by either concentration gradients of ions across the membrane or by membrane permeability to each type of ion

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36
Q

why is the resting membrane potential similar to the equilibrium potential of potassium?

A

because the membrane is more permeable to potassium than to sodium

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37
Q

what do channels in the membrane allow?

A

the movement of sodium and potassium ions and the development of constant membrane potential

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38
Q

what does constant membrane potential result in?

A

an equilibrium: the charges entering the cell must equal the charges leaving

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39
Q

what does the sodium-potassium pump do?

A

maintain concentration despite the leakage of ions

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40
Q

what are synapses?

A

junctions where neurons are connected and can transmit messages from one neuron to the other; the points of communication between neurons

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41
Q

what are chemical synapses?

A

synapses that communicate with chemical messengers

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42
Q

what are electrical synapses?

A

when ions flow directly between cells

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43
Q

what happens at a chemical synapse?

A

an action potential causes the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters

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44
Q

what can a neuron do?

A

maintain resting potential, fire nerve impulses/action potential, and sustain itself

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45
Q

what type of synapses involves neurotransmitters?

A

chemical synapses

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46
Q

where are synapses formed?

A

between the axons on one cell and the body/dendrites of another cell

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47
Q

what is in the axon terminal of all presynaptic neurons?

A

spheres filled with neurotransmitter molecules,

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48
Q

what is an excitatory postsynaptic potential?

A

when a neurotransmitter causes an ion channel to open or close, and then makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action potential

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49
Q

what is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

when a neurotransmitter causes an ion channel to open or close, and then makes the target cell less likely to fire its own action potential

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50
Q

what happens when a postsynaptic neuron receives these multiple inputs?

A

the neuron receives IPSPs and EPSPs and then computes whether to fire an action potential

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51
Q

what is spatial summation?

A

the integration of postsynaptic potentials in different locations at the same time

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52
Q

what is temporal summation?

A

the integration of postsynaptic potentials in similar locations at different times

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53
Q

how can synaptic signals be turned off?

A

the synaptic cleft must be cleared of neurotransmitters by using enzymes to break them down, being sucked back into the presynaptic neuron, or diffusing away.

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54
Q

what is synaptic plasticity?

A

presynaptic neurons can adjust (dial up or down) the amount of neurotransmitter it releases, and the postsynaptic neuron can adjust the amount of neurotransmitter it receives. this plasticity is involved in addiction, learning, and memory

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55
Q

what happens when something interferes with whatever turns off a synaptic signal?

A

it can have extreme physiological effects; for example insecticides interfere with this process to kill insects

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56
Q

what is the difference between chemical and electrical synapses?

A

at electrical synapses, there is a direct physical connection between the neurons, and signals are transmitted faster than in chemical synapses. however, they are less flexible

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57
Q

where are neurotransmitters stored?

A

in synaptic vesticles

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58
Q

when do neurotransmitters get released?

A

when calcium ions enter the axon terminal

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59
Q

how do neurotransmitters act?

A

by binding to receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell

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60
Q

what are the two types of conventional neurotransmitters?

A

small molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides

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61
Q

what are examples of small molecule neurotransmitters (small organic molecules)?

A

amino acids (glutamate, GABA, glycine), biogenic amines (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, histamine), purigenic neurotransmitters (ATP, adenosine), and acetylcholine

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62
Q

what are examples of neuropeptides? (made of 3 or more amino acids)

A

endorphins and enkephalins (inhibit pain), Substance P (carries pain signals), and Neuropeptide Y (stimulates eating, may prevent seizures)

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63
Q

what are the types of neurotransmitter receptors?

A

ligand-activated ion channels and metabotropic ion channels

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64
Q

what happens to ligand-activated ion channels/ionotropic receptors when neurotransmitters bind to them?

A

this causes the channel to open and can result in either an excitatory or inhibitory effect depending on which ions enter the opened channel

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65
Q

what are the two types of unconventional neurotransmitters?

A

endocannabinoids and gasotransmitters

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66
Q

what makes unconventional neurotransmitters unconventional?

A

they are not stored in synaptic vesicles, can carry messages from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic neuron, and cross the cell membrane to act directly on neurons inside the cell

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67
Q

what is an electrotonic spread?

A

a spread of an electrotonic potential, when there is a high concentration of certain ions that spreads through a neuron and dissipares

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68
Q

what is an action potential?

A

the boosting of the voltage/signal in a neuron after it spreads and triggers a channel to boost the signal

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69
Q

when would positive ions flow into a neuron?

A

when a channel opens so that the positive ions can cause an equilibrium with the neuron that contains mainly a negative charge/ions

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70
Q

why does the myelin sheath (or group of Schwann cells) cover axons?

A

to insulate the transmission of signals (similar to insulation of wires)

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71
Q

why are there gaps in the myelin sheath?

A

the gaps allow the membrane to interface with the outside where there are voltage-gated channels that release action potentials to boost the signal

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72
Q

what are the gaps in the myelin sheath called?

A

nodes of Ranvier

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73
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

the signal traveling across the axon dissipates and then gets boosted at each node of Ranvier

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74
Q

what is the synaptic cleft?

A

the space between the axon terminal and dendrite of two neurons

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75
Q

sequence of neuronal synapses

A

when the presynaptic neuron gets excited from action potential calcium floods in and makes the vesicles dump their contents into the synaptic cleft. this causes sodium channels to open up and excite the postsynaptic neuron, or it will cause potassium channels to open up and inhibit the postsynaptic neuron.

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76
Q

about how many synapses are in the cerebral cortex?

A

100 to 500 trillion

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77
Q

what parts of the brain are contained in the cerebellum?

A

the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the olfactory bulb, and the basal ganglia

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78
Q

what is the cerebral cortex?

A

the outer, wrinkly portion of the brain

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79
Q

why is the cerebral cortex wrinkly?

A

to allow it to have more mass and contain more neurons

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80
Q

what are the four hemispheres of the cerebral cortex?

A

the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe

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81
Q

what are the regions of the frontal lobe?

A

the motor cortex and prefrontal cortex

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82
Q

what does the motor cortex do?

A

controls body movements when stimulated

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83
Q

what does the prefrontal cortex control?

A

overseeing all other functions of the brain, and executive functions: thinking and problem-solving

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84
Q

what is Broca’s area?

A

the part of the frontal cortex that controls speech production

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85
Q

what are the regions of the parietal lobe?

A

somatosensory cortex, spacial processing

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86
Q

what is the somatosensory cortex?

A

the part of the brain that is associated with feelings from the five senses as well as temperature and pressure

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87
Q

what is spacial processing?

A

the parietal cortex helping you orient yourself in three-dimensional space and understand the space around us more generally

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88
Q

what is the occipital lobe?

A

the part of the brain that controls vision

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89
Q

what is the temporal cortex?

A

the part of the brain that is responsible for audio processing

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90
Q

what is Wernicke’s area?

A

the part of the temporal lobe that is responsible for language reception and comprehension

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91
Q

what is asserted based on Gestalt psychology?

A

that the mind processes the whole rather than the sum of its parts

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92
Q

what is the Gestalt principle of similarity?

A

when things appear to be similar, people group them together

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93
Q

what is signal detection theory?

A

A way to make decisions when faced with uncertainty

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94
Q

what is binocular disparity?

A

the difference in how an object looks from your left eye vs your right eye, based on the fact that your two eyes are separated from each other

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95
Q

what is motion parallax?

A

the fact that an object traveling at a certain distance appears to have traveled faster when it is closer, and at a slower when it is far away

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96
Q

what is interposition?

A

a signal that one object is closer than another because it is in front of/obscuring part of the object that is further away

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97
Q

what is convergence?

A

coordinated focusing of the eyes at a short range

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98
Q

what is top-down processing?

A

processing information and perceiving the world based on info/experience that you already have and things that you already know

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99
Q

what is bottom-up processing?

A

drawing from the stimuli/information itself to shape your ideas

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100
Q

the law of pragnanz states that

A

we reduce reality to its simplest form

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101
Q

what are monocular cues?

A

whatever helps you perceive the depth, form, and position of objects with only one eye (e.g. interposition, relative size, etc.)

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102
Q

what is constancy?

A

knowing that our brain can perceive objects as different shapes, sizes, or colors while still knowing that the object hasn’t actually changed

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103
Q

what is sensory adaptation?

A

a change in the sensitivity of your perception of a sensation

104
Q

how can human ears adapt to really loud noises?

A

a muscle in your inner ear contracts when confronted with really loud noises, dampening your ear and preventing your eardrums from being damaged by the noise

105
Q

how can the sense of touch or smell be adapted?

A

sensory nerves involved with your sense of touch or smell end up getting desensitized to certain temperatures or smells because the nerves get saturated and stop firing as much

106
Q

what is proprioception?

A

perception of ourselves and the world around us

107
Q

how can proprioception be adapted?

A

if your perception of the world changes (for example looking at images upside down) over time your brain will adapt and the image will be corrected

108
Q

how can sight be adapted?

A

the pupils dilate or constrict based on the brightness of what they’re looking at, and eyes get desensitized/adjusted to brightness or darkness

109
Q

what is the just noticeable difference (jnd)?

A

the threshold of change that needs to be surpassed in order for a difference in stimulus to be significant, noticeable, and/or perceived. it increases based on the intensity of the stimulus

110
Q

what is the absolute threshold of sensation?

A

the minimum amount of intensity that needs to be surpassed in order for a stimulus to be perceived

111
Q

what are subliminal stimuli

A

stimuli that are below the absolute threshold of sensation

112
Q

what is thermoception?

A

the detection of temperature

113
Q

what is mechanoception?

A

the detection of pressure

114
Q

what is nociception?

A

the detection of pain

115
Q

how does the body detect the intensity of a stimulus?

A

based on how quickly and how much the relevant nerves fire

116
Q

how does the brain know which parts of the body are sensing different stimuli?

A

the nerves in that body part send signals to the brain

117
Q

what is the vestibular system

A

a system that facilitates our sense of balance, spatial awareness, and dizziness

118
Q

where do most of our spatial awareness come from?

A

the inner ear

119
Q

how does the inner ear give information about spatial orientation?

A

the ear is filled with semi-circular canals that contain a fluid called endolymph that moves and shifts within the canal. the brain detects where the endolymph is moving and how quickly to determine spatial awareness

120
Q

how do hair cells within the inner ear give information about spatial orientation?

A

the hair cells have crystals on them that move in accordance with gravity and allows you to detect head positioning based on the position of the hair cells

121
Q

what causes dizziness?

A

when the movement of endolymph continues even when you have stopped moving, sending signals to your brain that you are still moving when you aren’t, making you dizzy

122
Q

what do gestalt principles explain?

A

why we perceive things the way we do

123
Q

what is the gestalt law of proximity?

A

items that are close to one another are grouped together by your brain

124
Q

what is the gestalt law of continuity?

A

lines are seen as following the smoothest path

125
Q

what is the gestalt law of closure?

A

objects grouped together are seen as a whole

126
Q

what is the sclera?

A

a thick fibrous tissue that forms the substance of the eyeball (as the white part of the eyeball) and serves as a muscle to move around and attach the eye

127
Q

what is the cornea?

A

the transparent part at the front of the eye that protects the front of the eye and bends light

128
Q

what are conjuctiva?

A

a thin layer of epithelial cells that protect your cornea from friction

129
Q

what is the aqueous humor?

A

water and salt that fills a chamber in the eye behind the cornea

130
Q

what is the iris?

A

muscles that contract and expand which controls the size of the pupil

131
Q

what is the vitreous humor?

A

the back chamber of the eye filled with fluid that holds the lens in place and maintains the structure of the eyeball

132
Q

what is the retina?

A

the part that coats the entire back of the eye that converts light into nerve impulses and sends them through the optic nerve to your brain

133
Q

what are rods and cones in the retina?

A

cells that take the light and convert it into a neural impulse. rods are responsible for light vision and cones are responsible for color vision

134
Q

how do rods detect light?

A

when light hits the rod, the cell “turns off” and activates a bipolar cell, which activates a ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve

135
Q

what is the phototransduction cascade?

A

a set of steps that occurs on a molecular level that turns off a rod in the retina

136
Q

what happens during the phototransduction cascade?

A

inside the rod, there are little disks with proteins (rhodopsin) in them, and they contain molecules inside of them called retinal, and the light causes the retinal to change shape which causes the rhodopsin to change shape as well. this causes transducin to break away from rhodopsin, and one of the transducin subunits binds to a protein called phosphodiesterase. then sodium channels close which causes the rods to turn off, which activates a bipolar cell

137
Q

what are photoreceptors?

A

nerves that allow you to detect color and light (cones and rods)

138
Q

what is the parvo pathway?

A

a pathway in the brain that is responsible for figuring out the form (shape, boundaries, details, etc.), aka spatial resolution. it doesn’t work as well with objects that are moving, especially when they move quickly

139
Q

what is the magno pathway?

A

a pathway in the brain that is responsible for encoding motion (tracking and detecting objects that are moving)

140
Q

what does the cochlea do?

A

helps the brain differentiate between the frequency of different sounds

141
Q

how does the cochlea detect frequency?

A

hair cells on the apex of the cochlea respond to lower frequencies while hair cells on the apex activate as a response to high frequencies

142
Q

what is sensorineural hearing loss?

A

when sounds are unable to be converted into electric signals to be sent into the brain, aka “nerve deafness”

143
Q

what is the incus?

A

the middle bone of the ossicles in the middle ear

144
Q

what is the tympanic membrane?

A

the border between the middle ear and the outer ear

145
Q

what are the pinnae?

A

the outer ear structure that sticks out from the head

146
Q

what is the oval window?

A

the border between the middle and inner ear

147
Q

is it possible to adapt to loud sounds?

A

no

148
Q

how does the tensor tympani protect one’s hearing?

A

it tightens the tympanic membrane to slow down transduction

149
Q

how do ossicles amplify sound that reaches the tympanic membrane?

A

transferring vibration from the tympanic membrane to the oval window

150
Q

what is sensory adaptation?

A

change over time of the response of a sensory receptor in response to a constant stimulus

151
Q

why does sensory adaptation happen?

A

because receptors stop firing when the stimulus is no longer changing

152
Q

what is sensory amplification?

A

upregulation of a stimulus when cells excite/activate other cells and this continues until the signal sent to the brain is amplified

153
Q

why is sensory adaptation important?

A

because if cells are over-excited they’ll die

154
Q

what is the somatosensory homunculus?

A

the brain’s map of your body, or the parts of your brain specializing in sensory inputs from each different body part

155
Q

what is the sensory strip?

A

the part of the brain that receives input from your entire body and contains the somatosensory homunculus

156
Q

what is the difference between proprioception and kinesthesia?

A

proprioception is concerned with your awareness of balance and position, while kinesthesia focuses on awareness of how you’re moving

157
Q

what receptor senses temperature and pain?

A

TrpV1

158
Q

how does TrpV1 detect pain?

A

pain will break a cell, and the molecules released from the broken cell bind themselves to the TrpV1 receptor

159
Q

what are pheromones?

A

molecules that are released by a member of a species that can be smelled by and cause a reaction in another member of that species

160
Q

what is the amygdala?

A

the part of the brain that is responsible to emotion, aggression, mating, etc.

161
Q

do humans rely on pheromones?

A

not really

162
Q

what is olfaction?

A

the sense of smell

163
Q

what is gustation?

A

the sense of taste

164
Q

what receptors do salt tastants bind to?

A

salty receptors, which detect sodium

165
Q

what receptors do sour tastants bind to?

A

sourness receptors

166
Q

what are the states of consciousness?

A

alertness, daydreaming/light meditation, drowsiness/deep meditation, sleep

167
Q

what are neural oscillations?

A

the patterns of neurons firing that indicate the level of alertness

168
Q

what are the different types of neural oscillations?

A

beta waves (12-40 hertz - extremely alert), alpha waves (8-13 hertz - relaxed), and theta waves (4-7 hertz - drowsy or lightly sleeping)

169
Q

what is the first stage of non-REM?

A

when your brain produces theta waves and induces hypnagogic hallucinations in the stage between sleep and wakefulness/drifting off to sleep

170
Q

what is the second stage of non-REM?

A

more theta waves, K-complex, and sleep spindles

171
Q

what are sleep spindles?

A

things that inhibit certain brain processes to maintain tranquility during sleep, for example sleeping during loud noises

172
Q

what are K-complexes?

A

they suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep, as well as assist with sleep-based memory consolidation.

173
Q

what is the third stage of non-REM?

A

delta waves (0.5 - 2 hertz), difficult to wake up, may walk/talk while asleep

174
Q

what is REM?

A

rapid-eye-movement; the stage of sleep when your eyes move rapidly under your eyelids and you are paralyzed

175
Q

how long does it take to complete a full cycle of sleep?

A

90 minutes

176
Q

what are circadian rhythms?

A

bodily rhythms across a 24-hour period, which control body temperature and sleep cycles

177
Q

why don’t people realize how strange dreams are?

A

because the prefrontal cortex isn’t active during REM sleep

178
Q

what did sigmund freud believe about dreams?

A

that they were a manifestation of unconscious thoughts and desires

179
Q

what is manifest content and latent content in dreams? (freudian psychology)

A

what actually happens in the dream and the hidden meaning of the dream, respectively

180
Q

what is the activation-synthesis hypothesis?

A

dreams are just a way for the brain to find meaning from random electrical impulses while you’re asleep

181
Q

what are the types of breathing-related sleep disorders?

A

obstructive sleep apnea (airways), central (brain), sleep-associated hyperventilation (lungs and chest)

182
Q

what are examples of induced states of consciousness?

A

hypnosis and meditation

183
Q

what are psychoactive drugs?

A

drugs that affect your sensory perception

184
Q

what are the different types of psychoactive drugs?

A

stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates

185
Q

how does drug dependence impact homeostasis?

A

the brain determines certain external conditions to detect when someone is about to take the drug, then adjusts the heart rate and other factors involved with homeostasis in order to prepare for the drug

186
Q

what neurotransmitter is released when someone feels pleasure?

A

dopamine

187
Q

in what area of the brain is dopamine produced?

A

vertical tegmental area

188
Q

what is inattentional blindness?

A

the inability to detect things in your line of sight when you’re not paying attention to them

189
Q

what is the nativist theory of language acquisition?

A

the theory that there is a language acquisition device somewhere in the human brain that is responsible for helping humans learn a language

190
Q

what is the learning theory of language acquisition?

A

the theory that children learn a language due to positive reinforcement and rewards

191
Q

what is the interactionist approach to language acquisition?

A

that children learn a language out of a desire to interact with what’s around them, and therefore our language is dependent on what we want to communicate with

192
Q

what is the interactionist approach to language acquisition?

A

that children learn a language out of a desire to interact with what’s around them, and therefore our language is dependent on what we want to communicate with

193
Q

what can an fMRI do?

A

track when and where our brains use energy

194
Q

where in the brain is language centralized?

A

the left hemisphere for right-handed people, and the left or right hemisphere for left-handed and ambidextrous people

195
Q

what is Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

people who can understand words but can’t say anything that makes sense

196
Q

what is Broca’s aphasia?

A

when people cannot speak clearly because of damage to their brain

197
Q

what is global aphasia?

A

having both Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia

198
Q

what is universalism?

A

the theory that thought comes before language

199
Q

what does the thalamus do?

A

directs each of the senses (aside from smell) into the appropriate parts of the brain

200
Q

what does the amygdala do?

A

produces feelings of aggression, violence, fear, and anxiety

201
Q

what does the hippocampus do?

A

converts your short-term memory into long-term memory

202
Q

what is the limbic system made of?

A

hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus

203
Q

what does the hypothalamus do?

A

regulates the autonomic nervous system and basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.

204
Q

what is the difference between the left and right hemispheres?

A

positive emotions and sociable behavior elicits more energy in the left hemisphere, and negative emotions and isolative behavior elicits more energy in the right hemisphere

205
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

the part of your brain responsible for automatic/unconscious physiological responses to certain stimuli

206
Q

what is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

it controls fight-or-flight response (causes pupil dilation, decrease in salivation, increased glucose, increased epinephrine/adrenaline, decreased digestion, and faster breathing and heart rate)

207
Q

what is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

it controls the rest-and-digest response (causes pupil constriction, increase in salivation, decreased glucose, decreased epinephrine/adrenaline, increased digestion, and slower breathing and heart rate)

208
Q

what does paul eckman describe as universal emotions?

A

happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise

209
Q

what is the james-lange theory of emotion?

A

emotions are caused by one’s awareness of the physiological response to an event (i.e. you’re sad because you’re crying, not crying because you’re sad)

210
Q

what is the cannon-bard theory of emotion?

A

events cause both a physiological response and an emotion at the same time; one doesn’t cause the other

211
Q

what is the schachter-singer theory of emotion?

A

emotions are caused after humans identify what is causing a physiological response

212
Q

what is a cognitive appraisal of stress?

A

an individual’s assessment/evaluation of a situation or an identification of a threat. this evaluation is what may cause stress

213
Q

piaget’s stages of cognitive development

A

0 - 2 years old (sensorimotor development), 2 - 7 years old (preoperational stage), 7 - 11 years old (concrete operational stage), 12+ (formal operational stage)

214
Q

what is assimilation and accomodation?

A

assimilation is being able to fit in new information into pre-existing mental models. accommodation is having to change your mindset/mental model or add a new concept or mental model into your pre-existing knowledge in order to fit new information

215
Q

methods of problem-solving

A

trial and error, algorithm strategy, heuristics

216
Q

what is belief perserverance?

A

ignoring any information that contradicts your beliefs, even if the information is true

217
Q

framing effects

A

framing a situation in a certain way influences people’s decision-making

218
Q

what are semantic networks?

A

links between different concepts in your brain

219
Q

what types of memory stay relatively stable over time?

A

implicit and recognition memory

220
Q

what types of memory improve over time?

A

semantic memory, crystallized intelligence, emotional reasoning

221
Q

what types of memory decline over time?

A

episodic memory, divided attention, processing speed, and recall

222
Q

what is cognitive dissonance?

A

the discomfort felt due to two contradicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, emotions, attitudes, behaviors, etc.)

223
Q

how do people reduce cognitive dissonance?

A

modifying their cognitions, adding new cognitions, denying cognitions, or trivializing their cognitions

224
Q

what is the primacy effect?

A

remembering the beginning items in a list better

225
Q

what is the recency effect?

A

rememebring the last items in a list better

226
Q

what is a serial position curve?

A

remembering the first and last items in the list better than the middle items

227
Q

why is memory considered reconstructive?

A

each time someone retrieves a memory, they modify it slightly, either due to false/misleading information, mood, or another reason

228
Q

what is long-term potentiation?

A

when a presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron get used to sending each other neurons, the presynaptic neuron strengthens and sends stronger signals to that postsynaptic neuron, which opens up more ion channels and creates a larger difference in potential (i.e. charge of outside membrane - charge of inside membrane). this means that it is easier for the two neurons to transmit signals and therefore makes learning easier in the long-term

229
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

a new piece of learning seems to impair your ability to recall the old information

230
Q

what is proactive interference?

A

something you remembered in the past impairs your ability to recall new information that replaces it

231
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

232
Q

what happens when someone as alzheimer’s?

A

their neurons die over time and their cerebral cortex shrinks due to the progressive lack of neurons and synapses

233
Q

why is thiamine important?

A

it converts carbohydrates into the glucose your cells need for energy

234
Q

what type of neuron accomodates the most synaptic information?

A

Purkinje fibers

235
Q

what hormone is involved in the fear response?

A

cortisol

236
Q

where, aside from the cerebellum, is large concentration of Purkinje fibers located?

A

in the heart

237
Q

what type of pressure do the Ruffini cylinder and Merkel receptor fire to?

A

constant pressure

238
Q

when do the Meissner corpuscle and the Pacinian corpuscle fire?

A

when pressure is first applied and when it is released

239
Q

symbolic interactionism

A

a theory that focuses on how humans interact and argues that human actions are based on the meanings they assign to things. it also focuses on society & social constructs and how they affect people’s mindsets

240
Q

what is an anti-thesis in conflict theory?

A

a negative reaction to the initial environment/status quo

241
Q

what is the ventral pathway involved in?

A

object and visual identification and recognition

242
Q

what is the dorsal pathway involved in?

A

guidance of actions and recognizing where objects are in space

243
Q

what are positive and negative symptoms?

A

symptoms that add or detract from someones behavior, respectively

244
Q

what does the basilar membrane do?

A

contains over 10,000 sensory hair cells that project axons into what eventually becomes the auditory nerve

245
Q

what type of pain is glutamate and substance P associated with?

A

glutamate - mild pain
substance p - strong pain

246
Q

what are the two main parts of the central nervous system?

A

spinal cord and brain

247
Q

what is the cerebrum?

A

the outside, wrinkly part of the brain

248
Q

what are cerebral hemispheres?

A

halves that the cerebrum is divided into

249
Q

what is the brain stem?

A

the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord, which is made up of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla

250
Q

what is the cerebellum?

A

the part of the brain that is behind the brain stem

251
Q

what is contained in the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and the hindbrain (rhombencephalon)?

A

the cerebrum; the midbrain; and the pons, medulla, and cerebellum respectively

252
Q

what do nerves carry?

A

the axons of neurons

253
Q

what do ganglia contain?

A

the somas of neurons

254
Q

what are afferent neurons?

A

neurons whose axons carry information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system

255
Q

what are efferent neurons?

A

neurons whose axons carry information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system

general (12 decks)

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