neuroscience & psychology :) Flashcards
what are the two types of cells in the nervous system?
neurons and glia
what do glial cells do?
support neurons
what is the central nervous system (cns)?
the integral part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord
what is the peripheral nervous system (pns)?
the neurons outside of the cns; sensory and motor neurons which, respectively, bring signals into the brain and carry signals out of the brain
how are pns neurons that are located in the cns still able to transfer signals?
neurons have axons (long extensions) that connect to the muscles
what is innervating?
connecting neurons with a certain part of the body; supplying an organ or other body part with nerves
what are nerves?
the axons of multiple peripheral neurons that follow a common route
what are sensory neurons?
neurons that send information to the cns about what’s going on inside and outside of your body so that your brain can process it
what are motor neurons?
neurons that get information from other neurons to control your muscles, organs, and glands
what are interneurons?
neurons that are found only in the cns and connect one neuron to the other, sending the same signals to different places to control both reflexes and complex reactions
what is the difference between dendrites and axons?
they are both processes (extensions of neurons) but dendrites are shorter, tend to taper down (i.e. decrease in diameter), have bumps called spines, and have no myelin sheath.
how do neurons receive signals?
through their dendritic trees. those signals then get conducted down the axon
what are synapses?
connections between dendrites of different neurons to transmit information from one (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)
how is information transmitted through synapses?
neurotransmitters bind to membrane receptors on the postsynaptic neuron to convey a signal
what are Purkinje cells?
cells in the cerebellum with an extremely large dendritic tree that can receive thousands of signals and inputs
what happens when sensory neurons connect with motor neurons?
the signal from the sensory input will be sent to the motor neuron and cause a certain movement
what glial cells are in the cns?
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia
what glial cells are in the pns?
Schwann cells
what do astrocytes do?
regulate blood flow in the brain, maintain fluid that surrounds neurons, regulate synaptic communication between neurons, help with transportation of neurons, and establish a blood-brain barrier to prevent toxins from the blood from entering the brain
what do microglia do?
clean up debris and dead cells in the brain
what do oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells do?
generate myelin for the axonal myelin sheath
what do satellite glial cells do?
cover the cell bodies of pns ganglia, possibly as a protective barrier
what do ependymal glial cells do?
promote circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
what are ganglia?
clusters of neurons
what is permeability?
the ability of a membrane to be crossed, or permeated, through diffusion
how do neurons transmit electrical signals?
through brief changes in the permeability of the neuron which allows ions to enter
what is membrane potential?
the difference in electric potential on the inside and outside of a cell
what is the resting membrane potential of neurons?
around -30 to -90 thousandths of a volt
what is a depolarized membrane potential?
membrane potential that is more positive than the resting membrane potential
what is a hyperpolarized membrane potential?
membrane potential that is more negative than the resting membrane potential
what electrical signals do neurons use to communicate?
hyperpolarizations or depolarizations of the resting membrane potential
what are cations?
positively charged neurons
what are anions?
negatively charged neurons
what are the most common ions in neurons?
sodium, potassium, organic anions, and chloride
how is resting potential determined?
by either concentration gradients of ions across the membrane or by membrane permeability to each type of ion
why is the resting membrane potential similar to the equilibrium potential of potassium?
because the membrane is more permeable to potassium than to sodium
what do channels in the membrane allow?
the movement of sodium and potassium ions and the development of constant membrane potential
what does constant membrane potential result in?
an equilibrium: the charges entering the cell must equal the charges leaving
what does the sodium-potassium pump do?
maintain concentration despite the leakage of ions
what are synapses?
junctions where neurons are connected and can transmit messages from one neuron to the other; the points of communication between neurons
what are chemical synapses?
synapses that communicate with chemical messengers
what are electrical synapses?
when ions flow directly between cells
what happens at a chemical synapse?
an action potential causes the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters
what can a neuron do?
maintain resting potential, fire nerve impulses/action potential, and sustain itself
what type of synapses involves neurotransmitters?
chemical synapses
where are synapses formed?
between the axons on one cell and the body/dendrites of another cell
what is in the axon terminal of all presynaptic neurons?
spheres filled with neurotransmitter molecules,
what is an excitatory postsynaptic potential?
when a neurotransmitter causes an ion channel to open or close, and then makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action potential
what is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential
when a neurotransmitter causes an ion channel to open or close, and then makes the target cell less likely to fire its own action potential
what happens when a postsynaptic neuron receives these multiple inputs?
the neuron receives IPSPs and EPSPs and then computes whether to fire an action potential
what is spatial summation?
the integration of postsynaptic potentials in different locations at the same time
what is temporal summation?
the integration of postsynaptic potentials in similar locations at different times
how can synaptic signals be turned off?
the synaptic cleft must be cleared of neurotransmitters by using enzymes to break them down, being sucked back into the presynaptic neuron, or diffusing away.
what is synaptic plasticity?
presynaptic neurons can adjust (dial up or down) the amount of neurotransmitter it releases, and the postsynaptic neuron can adjust the amount of neurotransmitter it receives. this plasticity is involved in addiction, learning, and memory
what happens when something interferes with whatever turns off a synaptic signal?
it can have extreme physiological effects; for example insecticides interfere with this process to kill insects
what is the difference between chemical and electrical synapses?
at electrical synapses, there is a direct physical connection between the neurons, and signals are transmitted faster than in chemical synapses. however, they are less flexible
where are neurotransmitters stored?
in synaptic vesticles
when do neurotransmitters get released?
when calcium ions enter the axon terminal
how do neurotransmitters act?
by binding to receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell
what are the two types of conventional neurotransmitters?
small molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides
what are examples of small molecule neurotransmitters (small organic molecules)?
amino acids (glutamate, GABA, glycine), biogenic amines (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, histamine), purigenic neurotransmitters (ATP, adenosine), and acetylcholine
what are examples of neuropeptides? (made of 3 or more amino acids)
endorphins and enkephalins (inhibit pain), Substance P (carries pain signals), and Neuropeptide Y (stimulates eating, may prevent seizures)
what are the types of neurotransmitter receptors?
ligand-activated ion channels and metabotropic ion channels
what happens to ligand-activated ion channels/ionotropic receptors when neurotransmitters bind to them?
this causes the channel to open and can result in either an excitatory or inhibitory effect depending on which ions enter the opened channel
what are the two types of unconventional neurotransmitters?
endocannabinoids and gasotransmitters
what makes unconventional neurotransmitters unconventional?
they are not stored in synaptic vesicles, can carry messages from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic neuron, and cross the cell membrane to act directly on neurons inside the cell
what is an electrotonic spread?
a spread of an electrotonic potential, when there is a high concentration of certain ions that spreads through a neuron and dissipares
what is an action potential?
the boosting of the voltage/signal in a neuron after it spreads and triggers a channel to boost the signal
when would positive ions flow into a neuron?
when a channel opens so that the positive ions can cause an equilibrium with the neuron that contains mainly a negative charge/ions
why does the myelin sheath (or group of Schwann cells) cover axons?
to insulate the transmission of signals (similar to insulation of wires)
why are there gaps in the myelin sheath?
the gaps allow the membrane to interface with the outside where there are voltage-gated channels that release action potentials to boost the signal
what are the gaps in the myelin sheath called?
nodes of Ranvier
What is saltatory conduction?
the signal traveling across the axon dissipates and then gets boosted at each node of Ranvier
what is the synaptic cleft?
the space between the axon terminal and dendrite of two neurons
sequence of neuronal synapses
when the presynaptic neuron gets excited from action potential calcium floods in and makes the vesicles dump their contents into the synaptic cleft. this causes sodium channels to open up and excite the postsynaptic neuron, or it will cause potassium channels to open up and inhibit the postsynaptic neuron.
about how many synapses are in the cerebral cortex?
100 to 500 trillion
what parts of the brain are contained in the cerebellum?
the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the olfactory bulb, and the basal ganglia
what is the cerebral cortex?
the outer, wrinkly portion of the brain
why is the cerebral cortex wrinkly?
to allow it to have more mass and contain more neurons
what are the four hemispheres of the cerebral cortex?
the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe
what are the regions of the frontal lobe?
the motor cortex and prefrontal cortex
what does the motor cortex do?
controls body movements when stimulated
what does the prefrontal cortex control?
overseeing all other functions of the brain, and executive functions: thinking and problem-solving
what is Broca’s area?
the part of the frontal cortex that controls speech production
what are the regions of the parietal lobe?
somatosensory cortex, spacial processing
what is the somatosensory cortex?
the part of the brain that is associated with feelings from the five senses as well as temperature and pressure
what is spacial processing?
the parietal cortex helping you orient yourself in three-dimensional space and understand the space around us more generally
what is the occipital lobe?
the part of the brain that controls vision
what is the temporal cortex?
the part of the brain that is responsible for audio processing
what is Wernicke’s area?
the part of the temporal lobe that is responsible for language reception and comprehension
what is asserted based on Gestalt psychology?
that the mind processes the whole rather than the sum of its parts
what is the Gestalt principle of similarity?
when things appear to be similar, people group them together
what is signal detection theory?
A way to make decisions when faced with uncertainty
what is binocular disparity?
the difference in how an object looks from your left eye vs your right eye, based on the fact that your two eyes are separated from each other
what is motion parallax?
the fact that an object traveling at a certain distance appears to have traveled faster when it is closer, and at a slower when it is far away
what is interposition?
a signal that one object is closer than another because it is in front of/obscuring part of the object that is further away
what is convergence?
coordinated focusing of the eyes at a short range
what is top-down processing?
processing information and perceiving the world based on info/experience that you already have and things that you already know
what is bottom-up processing?
drawing from the stimuli/information itself to shape your ideas
the law of pragnanz states that
we reduce reality to its simplest form
what are monocular cues?
whatever helps you perceive the depth, form, and position of objects with only one eye (e.g. interposition, relative size, etc.)
what is constancy?
knowing that our brain can perceive objects as different shapes, sizes, or colors while still knowing that the object hasn’t actually changed
what is sensory adaptation?
a change in the sensitivity of your perception of a sensation
how can human ears adapt to really loud noises?
a muscle in your inner ear contracts when confronted with really loud noises, dampening your ear and preventing your eardrums from being damaged by the noise
how can the sense of touch or smell be adapted?
sensory nerves involved with your sense of touch or smell end up getting desensitized to certain temperatures or smells because the nerves get saturated and stop firing as much
what is proprioception?
perception of ourselves and the world around us
how can proprioception be adapted?
if your perception of the world changes (for example looking at images upside down) over time your brain will adapt and the image will be corrected
how can sight be adapted?
the pupils dilate or constrict based on the brightness of what they’re looking at, and eyes get desensitized/adjusted to brightness or darkness
what is the just noticeable difference (jnd)?
the threshold of change that needs to be surpassed in order for a difference in stimulus to be significant, noticeable, and/or perceived. it increases based on the intensity of the stimulus
what is the absolute threshold of sensation?
the minimum amount of intensity that needs to be surpassed in order for a stimulus to be perceived
what are subliminal stimuli
stimuli that are below the absolute threshold of sensation
what is thermoception?
the detection of temperature
what is mechanoception?
the detection of pressure
what is nociception?
the detection of pain
how does the body detect the intensity of a stimulus?
based on how quickly and how much the relevant nerves fire
how does the brain know which parts of the body are sensing different stimuli?
the nerves in that body part send signals to the brain
what is the vestibular system
a system that facilitates our sense of balance, spatial awareness, and dizziness
where do most of our spatial awareness come from?
the inner ear
how does the inner ear give information about spatial orientation?
the ear is filled with semi-circular canals that contain a fluid called endolymph that moves and shifts within the canal. the brain detects where the endolymph is moving and how quickly to determine spatial awareness
how do hair cells within the inner ear give information about spatial orientation?
the hair cells have crystals on them that move in accordance with gravity and allows you to detect head positioning based on the position of the hair cells
what causes dizziness?
when the movement of endolymph continues even when you have stopped moving, sending signals to your brain that you are still moving when you aren’t, making you dizzy
what do gestalt principles explain?
why we perceive things the way we do
what is the gestalt law of proximity?
items that are close to one another are grouped together by your brain
what is the gestalt law of continuity?
lines are seen as following the smoothest path
what is the gestalt law of closure?
objects grouped together are seen as a whole
what is the sclera?
a thick fibrous tissue that forms the substance of the eyeball (as the white part of the eyeball) and serves as a muscle to move around and attach the eye
what is the cornea?
the transparent part at the front of the eye that protects the front of the eye and bends light
what are conjuctiva?
a thin layer of epithelial cells that protect your cornea from friction
what is the aqueous humor?
water and salt that fills a chamber in the eye behind the cornea
what is the iris?
muscles that contract and expand which controls the size of the pupil
what is the vitreous humor?
the back chamber of the eye filled with fluid that holds the lens in place and maintains the structure of the eyeball
what is the retina?
the part that coats the entire back of the eye that converts light into nerve impulses and sends them through the optic nerve to your brain
what are rods and cones in the retina?
cells that take the light and convert it into a neural impulse. rods are responsible for light vision and cones are responsible for color vision
how do rods detect light?
when light hits the rod, the cell “turns off” and activates a bipolar cell, which activates a ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve
what is the phototransduction cascade?
a set of steps that occurs on a molecular level that turns off a rod in the retina
what happens during the phototransduction cascade?
inside the rod, there are little disks with proteins (rhodopsin) in them, and they contain molecules inside of them called retinal, and the light causes the retinal to change shape which causes the rhodopsin to change shape as well. this causes transducin to break away from rhodopsin, and one of the transducin subunits binds to a protein called phosphodiesterase. then sodium channels close which causes the rods to turn off, which activates a bipolar cell
what are photoreceptors?
nerves that allow you to detect color and light (cones and rods)
what is the parvo pathway?
a pathway in the brain that is responsible for figuring out the form (shape, boundaries, details, etc.), aka spatial resolution. it doesn’t work as well with objects that are moving, especially when they move quickly
what is the magno pathway?
a pathway in the brain that is responsible for encoding motion (tracking and detecting objects that are moving)
what does the cochlea do?
helps the brain differentiate between the frequency of different sounds
how does the cochlea detect frequency?
hair cells on the apex of the cochlea respond to lower frequencies while hair cells on the apex activate as a response to high frequencies
what is sensorineural hearing loss?
when sounds are unable to be converted into electric signals to be sent into the brain, aka “nerve deafness”
what is the incus?
the middle bone of the ossicles in the middle ear
what is the tympanic membrane?
the border between the middle ear and the outer ear
what are the pinnae?
the outer ear structure that sticks out from the head
what is the oval window?
the border between the middle and inner ear
is it possible to adapt to loud sounds?
no
how does the tensor tympani protect one’s hearing?
it tightens the tympanic membrane to slow down transduction
how do ossicles amplify sound that reaches the tympanic membrane?
transferring vibration from the tympanic membrane to the oval window
what is sensory adaptation?
change over time of the response of a sensory receptor in response to a constant stimulus
why does sensory adaptation happen?
because receptors stop firing when the stimulus is no longer changing
what is sensory amplification?
upregulation of a stimulus when cells excite/activate other cells and this continues until the signal sent to the brain is amplified
why is sensory adaptation important?
because if cells are over-excited they’ll die
what is the somatosensory homunculus?
the brain’s map of your body, or the parts of your brain specializing in sensory inputs from each different body part
what is the sensory strip?
the part of the brain that receives input from your entire body and contains the somatosensory homunculus
what is the difference between proprioception and kinesthesia?
proprioception is concerned with your awareness of balance and position, while kinesthesia focuses on awareness of how you’re moving
what receptor senses temperature and pain?
TrpV1
how does TrpV1 detect pain?
pain will break a cell, and the molecules released from the broken cell bind themselves to the TrpV1 receptor
what are pheromones?
molecules that are released by a member of a species that can be smelled by and cause a reaction in another member of that species
what is the amygdala?
the part of the brain that is responsible to emotion, aggression, mating, etc.
do humans rely on pheromones?
not really
what is olfaction?
the sense of smell
what is gustation?
the sense of taste
what receptors do salt tastants bind to?
salty receptors, which detect sodium
what receptors do sour tastants bind to?
sourness receptors
what are the states of consciousness?
alertness, daydreaming/light meditation, drowsiness/deep meditation, sleep
what are neural oscillations?
the patterns of neurons firing that indicate the level of alertness
what are the different types of neural oscillations?
beta waves (12-40 hertz - extremely alert), alpha waves (8-13 hertz - relaxed), and theta waves (4-7 hertz - drowsy or lightly sleeping)
what is the first stage of non-REM?
when your brain produces theta waves and induces hypnagogic hallucinations in the stage between sleep and wakefulness/drifting off to sleep
what is the second stage of non-REM?
more theta waves, K-complex, and sleep spindles
what are sleep spindles?
things that inhibit certain brain processes to maintain tranquility during sleep, for example sleeping during loud noises
what are K-complexes?
they suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep, as well as assist with sleep-based memory consolidation.
what is the third stage of non-REM?
delta waves (0.5 - 2 hertz), difficult to wake up, may walk/talk while asleep
what is REM?
rapid-eye-movement; the stage of sleep when your eyes move rapidly under your eyelids and you are paralyzed
how long does it take to complete a full cycle of sleep?
90 minutes
what are circadian rhythms?
bodily rhythms across a 24-hour period, which control body temperature and sleep cycles
why don’t people realize how strange dreams are?
because the prefrontal cortex isn’t active during REM sleep
what did sigmund freud believe about dreams?
that they were a manifestation of unconscious thoughts and desires
what is manifest content and latent content in dreams? (freudian psychology)
what actually happens in the dream and the hidden meaning of the dream, respectively
what is the activation-synthesis hypothesis?
dreams are just a way for the brain to find meaning from random electrical impulses while you’re asleep
what are the types of breathing-related sleep disorders?
obstructive sleep apnea (airways), central (brain), sleep-associated hyperventilation (lungs and chest)
what are examples of induced states of consciousness?
hypnosis and meditation
what are psychoactive drugs?
drugs that affect your sensory perception
what are the different types of psychoactive drugs?
stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates
how does drug dependence impact homeostasis?
the brain determines certain external conditions to detect when someone is about to take the drug, then adjusts the heart rate and other factors involved with homeostasis in order to prepare for the drug
what neurotransmitter is released when someone feels pleasure?
dopamine
in what area of the brain is dopamine produced?
vertical tegmental area
what is inattentional blindness?
the inability to detect things in your line of sight when you’re not paying attention to them
what is the nativist theory of language acquisition?
the theory that there is a language acquisition device somewhere in the human brain that is responsible for helping humans learn a language
what is the learning theory of language acquisition?
the theory that children learn a language due to positive reinforcement and rewards
what is the interactionist approach to language acquisition?
that children learn a language out of a desire to interact with what’s around them, and therefore our language is dependent on what we want to communicate with
what is the interactionist approach to language acquisition?
that children learn a language out of a desire to interact with what’s around them, and therefore our language is dependent on what we want to communicate with
what can an fMRI do?
track when and where our brains use energy
where in the brain is language centralized?
the left hemisphere for right-handed people, and the left or right hemisphere for left-handed and ambidextrous people
what is Wernicke’s aphasia?
people who can understand words but can’t say anything that makes sense
what is Broca’s aphasia?
when people cannot speak clearly because of damage to their brain
what is global aphasia?
having both Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia
what is universalism?
the theory that thought comes before language
what does the thalamus do?
directs each of the senses (aside from smell) into the appropriate parts of the brain
what does the amygdala do?
produces feelings of aggression, violence, fear, and anxiety
what does the hippocampus do?
converts your short-term memory into long-term memory
what is the limbic system made of?
hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus
what does the hypothalamus do?
regulates the autonomic nervous system and basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.
what is the difference between the left and right hemispheres?
positive emotions and sociable behavior elicits more energy in the left hemisphere, and negative emotions and isolative behavior elicits more energy in the right hemisphere
what is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
the part of your brain responsible for automatic/unconscious physiological responses to certain stimuli
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
it controls fight-or-flight response (causes pupil dilation, decrease in salivation, increased glucose, increased epinephrine/adrenaline, decreased digestion, and faster breathing and heart rate)
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
it controls the rest-and-digest response (causes pupil constriction, increase in salivation, decreased glucose, decreased epinephrine/adrenaline, increased digestion, and slower breathing and heart rate)
what does paul eckman describe as universal emotions?
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise
what is the james-lange theory of emotion?
emotions are caused by one’s awareness of the physiological response to an event (i.e. you’re sad because you’re crying, not crying because you’re sad)
what is the cannon-bard theory of emotion?
events cause both a physiological response and an emotion at the same time; one doesn’t cause the other
what is the schachter-singer theory of emotion?
emotions are caused after humans identify what is causing a physiological response
what is a cognitive appraisal of stress?
an individual’s assessment/evaluation of a situation or an identification of a threat. this evaluation is what may cause stress
piaget’s stages of cognitive development
0 - 2 years old (sensorimotor development), 2 - 7 years old (preoperational stage), 7 - 11 years old (concrete operational stage), 12+ (formal operational stage)
what is assimilation and accomodation?
assimilation is being able to fit in new information into pre-existing mental models. accommodation is having to change your mindset/mental model or add a new concept or mental model into your pre-existing knowledge in order to fit new information
methods of problem-solving
trial and error, algorithm strategy, heuristics
what is belief perserverance?
ignoring any information that contradicts your beliefs, even if the information is true
framing effects
framing a situation in a certain way influences people’s decision-making
what are semantic networks?
links between different concepts in your brain
what types of memory stay relatively stable over time?
implicit and recognition memory
what types of memory improve over time?
semantic memory, crystallized intelligence, emotional reasoning
what types of memory decline over time?
episodic memory, divided attention, processing speed, and recall
what is cognitive dissonance?
the discomfort felt due to two contradicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, emotions, attitudes, behaviors, etc.)
how do people reduce cognitive dissonance?
modifying their cognitions, adding new cognitions, denying cognitions, or trivializing their cognitions
what is the primacy effect?
remembering the beginning items in a list better
what is the recency effect?
rememebring the last items in a list better
what is a serial position curve?
remembering the first and last items in the list better than the middle items
why is memory considered reconstructive?
each time someone retrieves a memory, they modify it slightly, either due to false/misleading information, mood, or another reason
what is long-term potentiation?
when a presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron get used to sending each other neurons, the presynaptic neuron strengthens and sends stronger signals to that postsynaptic neuron, which opens up more ion channels and creates a larger difference in potential (i.e. charge of outside membrane - charge of inside membrane). this means that it is easier for the two neurons to transmit signals and therefore makes learning easier in the long-term
what is retroactive interference?
a new piece of learning seems to impair your ability to recall the old information
what is proactive interference?
something you remembered in the past impairs your ability to recall new information that replaces it
what is episodic memory?
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
what happens when someone as alzheimer’s?
their neurons die over time and their cerebral cortex shrinks due to the progressive lack of neurons and synapses
why is thiamine important?
it converts carbohydrates into the glucose your cells need for energy
what type of neuron accomodates the most synaptic information?
Purkinje fibers
what hormone is involved in the fear response?
cortisol
where, aside from the cerebellum, is large concentration of Purkinje fibers located?
in the heart
what type of pressure do the Ruffini cylinder and Merkel receptor fire to?
constant pressure
when do the Meissner corpuscle and the Pacinian corpuscle fire?
when pressure is first applied and when it is released
symbolic interactionism
a theory that focuses on how humans interact and argues that human actions are based on the meanings they assign to things. it also focuses on society & social constructs and how they affect people’s mindsets
what is an anti-thesis in conflict theory?
a negative reaction to the initial environment/status quo
what is the ventral pathway involved in?
object and visual identification and recognition
what is the dorsal pathway involved in?
guidance of actions and recognizing where objects are in space
what are positive and negative symptoms?
symptoms that add or detract from someones behavior, respectively
what does the basilar membrane do?
contains over 10,000 sensory hair cells that project axons into what eventually becomes the auditory nerve
what type of pain is glutamate and substance P associated with?
glutamate - mild pain
substance p - strong pain
what are the two main parts of the central nervous system?
spinal cord and brain
what is the cerebrum?
the outside, wrinkly part of the brain
what are cerebral hemispheres?
halves that the cerebrum is divided into
what is the brain stem?
the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord, which is made up of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla
what is the cerebellum?
the part of the brain that is behind the brain stem
what is contained in the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and the hindbrain (rhombencephalon)?
the cerebrum; the midbrain; and the pons, medulla, and cerebellum respectively
what do nerves carry?
the axons of neurons
what do ganglia contain?
the somas of neurons
what are afferent neurons?
neurons whose axons carry information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system
what are efferent neurons?
neurons whose axons carry information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system
