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Psychology 1002 > Neuroscience > Flashcards

Neuroscience Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System and their different functions?

What is the Central Nervous System?

A

Peripheral Nervous System

  1. Sensory: sensory nerves coming from sensory organs (skin)
  2. Motor: allows our brain and spinal cord to control our movements

Central nervous system
Estimated to contain about 100 billion neurons and we use 100% of our brains
Different parts of the brain are specialised to different things.

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2
Q

Why does the CNS need a lot of protection?

A

The CNS has lots of protection around it as it is not readily able to rejuvenate any damage.
Renewal of cells does not occur in the neurons like it does in the body, only a small amount of neurogenesis (birth of new neurons). If we turned over neurons then things we learnt and retained years ago would disappear.

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3
Q

What are the different forms of protection offered to the central nervous system?

A

The brain and spinal cord are protected by:

  1. Bone - physical protection
  2. Meninges - flexible sheet between brain/spinal cord and bone, made from three membranes
  3. Blood brain barrier
    - The blood vessels supplying blood to the CNS have special walls, restricting entry of many chemicals into the CNS
    - Any toxins that get into your brain or spinal cord would be detrimental
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4
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system and the two branches?

A

Autonomic Nervous System:
Controls many non-voluntary bodily functions: “4 Fs”- feeding, fleeing, fighting and sex
2 branches have opposite effects but overlap in what organs they are controlling.

Sympathetic - preparing for emergency - shuts down activity in other areas - blood flow directed to muscles and heart rate increases

Parasympathetic - increases activity in gut, stimulates salivation, directs blood away from muscles - preparing for rest and recuperation

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5
Q

What neurotransmitters are used by the CNS?

A

Nerves leaving your spinal cord and brain use neurotransmitters (chemicals) which they release to produce effects on organs

Acetylcholine: parasympathetic - producing salivation, activating gut etc

Noradrenaline: sympathetic

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6
Q

How do drugs used to treat psychological conditions, such as depression, cause side-effects in the body?

A

Drugs used to treat psychological conditions work by adjusting levels of brain chemicals

SSRIs are mainly used to treat types of depression and work by increasing the amount of serotonin available in the brain - however, since it is affecting the nervous system, side effects such as an elevated heart rate, vomiting, nausea and poor sleep can accompany it.

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7
Q

What are the 3 membranes of the meninges?

A
  1. Dura mater: sits over the brain - not very flexible
  2. Arachnoid mater - spongy membrane
  3. Pia mater: lies directly in contact with the brain itself - glad wrap consistency
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8
Q

What are the fluid-filled cavities in our brain and where are they located?

A

Cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are the sewerage system of CNS - blockage causes hydrocephalus (inflates ventricles, squashing brain through built up pressure) - occasionally occurs in unborn babies.
Blood-brain barrier limits what can go from the brain into the blood

Two holes in the middle (one in each hemisphere) - lateral ventricles
The third ventricle is the opening below.

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9
Q

What is the brainstem and what does it do?

A

Brainstem - controls life-supporting functions (heart rate, breathing) and is
continuous with the spinal cord.

Should be the area that is the least vulnerable to damage as it is most protected - however, there is a design flaw based on the fact that our head is an enclosed cavity and there is only one opening at the base of the skull. If you’re in a car accident and you hit your head, causing internal bleeding - builds up pressure in the head which pushes the brain towards the only opening at the bottom, squashing the brain and hence, the brain stem first.
A way to relieve pressure is to drill a hole in the skull.

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10
Q

What is the cerebellum and what does it do?

A

Cerebellum (small brain): contains most neurons

  • Control of precision movements (including learned ones)
  • Damage to cerebellum - loses smoothness and accuracy of movement
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11
Q

What are the thalamus and hypothalamus?

A

The thalamus sits near the centre of the brain and is sensory relay to the cortex (the only sense that bypasses it is smell).

The hypothalamus sits at the top of the brain stem and is involved in hormonal regulation and motivational control (feeding and sex).

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12
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Limbic system - control of emotion and memory

- Located around the thalamus

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13
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

Basal ganglia: action and thought

  • Globus pallidus, putamen and caudate and are main parts
  • Role in movement - selection of movement and which are appropriate at a given time
  • Structures involved in selection of actions also contribute to the selection of thoughts (offline action)
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14
Q

Why is the cortex so wrinkled?

A

The neocortex is the convoluted sheet on top of the brain that covers the human brain. It is wrinkled because the area is too large for the head, hence, resulting in folds that develop over time. Primates have a lot of cortex, with humans containing the most.

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15
Q

What are the different lobes, and what different functions are they specialised for?

A

Four lobes of neocortex are: frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes and occipital lobes

  1. Frontal lobes - planning and executive functions - motor control
  2. Parietal lobes: representing space for action - touch
  3. Temporal lobes - memory and language - hearing and taste and smell
  4. Occipital lobes - vision
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16
Q

What connects your two hemispheres?

A

Corpus Callosum - connecting two hemispheres

Band of fibres that are travelling between the two hemispheres and sharing information

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17
Q

How has the brain changed during the course of evolution?

A

Vertebrates have separation between the PNS and CNS as their defining characteristic.

Among vertebrates, large differences in relative size of different regions of the brain occur, reflecting the complexity of behaviour.
A large increase in the size of the forebrain among vertebrates and the appearance (and enlargement) of neocortex in mammals.

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18
Q

What are neurons and what is their structure?

A

Neurons are responsible for carrying information throughout the human body, using electrical and chemical signals to coordinate necessary functions of life.

The axon is the main fibre branching out from the soma and the end of the axon branches into smaller fibres.
The soma contains the nucleus and hence, DNA.
Myelin is a protein that wraps around the axon.

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19
Q

What sort of signals do neurons send?

A

Neurons pick up information at the dendrites and send the signal down the axon to the terminal.
They communicate using electrical and chemical signals - action potentials are electrical signals.

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20
Q

What is the resting state of a neuron?

A

Neurons are covered in a lipid (fatty) membrane that is semipermeable so it can control ion concentrations. In its resting state, the inside of a neuron is negatively charged and is polarised.

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21
Q

What happens when a neuron is depolarised?

A

When a neuron becomes depolarised, ion channels open to let ions enter and exit. The neuron is only in this state for a msec, but can spike (switch on and off) many times a second.

Lots of positively charged sodium ions exist outside the neuron, and when the channels open, the sodium ions rush in and for a brief moment there are more inside than outside (“on” state) - this influx is corrected with another influx of positive ions so the sodium ions rush back out - more negatively charged inside than it was initially.

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22
Q

What is a hyperpolarization state?

A

Hyperpolarization state - more negative than before - when the membrane is in this state it can’t have another action potential - stops the action potential from spreading back on itself

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23
Q

How many states can a neuron have and what does this tell us about the sort of signalling they are capable of?

A

Neurons can exist in two states: either “off” (polarized, at rest) or “on” when flips into a depolarised state.

We have learned that neurons are digital (convey only one bit of information at a time) - says if they are off or on - making the signal far more reliable

A lot more noise in the analog signal which is harder to read.

24
Q

What is myelin?

A

Myelin prevents depolarization (except at gaps).
This speeds up the propagation of AP - neurons with myelin are faster.

Sodium ions cannot get into the membrane through the segments with myelin - gaps are just the right length for the AP to spread

25
Q

How do neurons communicate with one another?

A

Neurons form small junctions called synapses and communicate across these synapses.

The vast majority of neurons communicate via chemical transmission across the synapse - releases chemicals in the tiny space between neurons.

26
Q

How might a neurotransmitter from one neuron affect another neuron?

A

Neurotransmitters are released into synapse from the terminal.

NTs can be excitatory (produce an AP or somehow facilitate the neuron in having AP)
e.g. glutamate - when glutamate sticks onto receptor it opens up the sodium channel and triggers an AP

or inhibitory (stop APs happening) 
e.g. GABA - binds to receptor and opens up chloride channel and hyperpolarizes membrane
27
Q

What stops the effects of neurotransmitters in the synapse?

A

Effects of NTs must be brief therefore, the effect can be ended by:

  • enzymes in synapse and reuptake: when neurotransmitter is released into the synapse
  • anything that doesn’t immediately bind to the receptor gets cleaned up by enzymes
28
Q

Where do most psychoactive drugs work in the nervous system?

A

Psychoactive drugs affect functioning of neurons by mimicking or blocking neurotransmitters. Drugs can influence the release, re-uptake, enzymatic destruction or receptor-binding of neurotransmitters

Agonists: bind to synaptic receptors and increase the effect of the neurotransmitter

Antagonists: bind to synaptic receptors and decrease the effect of the neurotransmitters

29
Q

In what ways can drugs interact with neurotransmission?

- recreational and theraputic

A

Certain drugs (anaesthetics and alcohol) work by interfering with action potentials - drug penetrates the membrane of the neuron and interferes with signalling.

Recreational drugs

  • Opiates (heroin, morphine, codeine) mimic brain’s opioid NTs
  • Cocaine, amphetamines and ecstasy promote transmission of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin
  • Nicotine - stimulates acetylcholine receptors
  • Caffeine - blocks adenosine receptors

Therapeutic drugs

  • Benzodiazepines (e.g. valium) enhances inhibitory effects of GABA (as does alcohol)
  • Most anti-schizophrenic drugs block dopamine
  • Antidepressant drugs enhance serotonin and noradrenaline transmission (e.g. by blocking reuptake)
30
Q

What methods can be used to show that a specific part of the brain is necessary for a given function?

A

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

  • Creates a brief magnetic pulse and the magnetic field can pass through the skull into the brain
  • Depolarizes neurons and induces action potentials

Single-cell recording/electrical stimulation

  • Microinjection into specific region of brain - rarely done in people
  • Puts electrode in the brain and uses it to measure neurons or deliver an electrical current to stimulate neurons directly
31
Q

What four methods can be used to obtain functional maps of the human brain?

A

Functional imaging of the human brain : measuring which brain areas become active

  1. Electroencephalography (EEG)
  2. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
  3. Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
  4. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
32
Q

What is EEG? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

EEG: electrode plates against scalp record electrical fields from brain - non-invasive

Good temporal resolution: can measure very quickly the rapid changes in electrical activity.

Poor spatial resolution (not good for seeing exactly where activity occurred).

33
Q

How does PET work? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

PET: measures changes in blood flow

  • Uses radioactively-labelled oxygen (or glucose).
  • Active areas highlighted because they draw more blood and receive more O2
  • Areas that are working harder use more oxygen (like a muscle)

Quite good spatial resolution, but less good temporal resolution

34
Q

What does fMRI measure? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

fMRI: measures changes in O2 in blood (differences in the magnetic properties of O2 rich and O2 depleted blood)
Active tissue consumes a lot of oxygen so biggest change in oxygen levels = most activity

Has good spatial resolution especially when combined with high-quality anatomical MRI

But BOLD response lags behind actual brain activity and temporal resolution not so high

35
Q

What is MEG? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

MEG: measures magnetic field emitted from brain
- 3D reconstruction of electrical activity to create a functional map of brain response

Excellent temporal resolution and good spatial resolution and non-invasive

But equipment is hugely expensive and extremely sensitive to any source of electromagnetic interference e.g. from any electrical device

36
Q

What three regions of the hypothalamus are involved in feeding?

A

Lateral hypothalamus: destruction of LH causes rats to reduce eating dramatically

Paraventricular nucleus: rats with damage to PVN eat bigger meals

Ventromedial hypothalamus: destruction of VMH makes rats overeat. But not lack satiety; meals normal size but more frequent

Arcuate nucleus contains two types of neurons:

  1. Promote feeding (via LH)
  2. Suppress feeding (via VMH and PVN): fasting/feeding can activate each class; stimulation can induce/stop feeding.
37
Q

What areas of the brain are responsible for keeping us aroused?

A

The brainstem:

Noradrenaline neurons in Locus Coeruleus

Serotonin neurons in Raphe nuclei

Acetylcholine neurons in Pons
Are all responsible for arousal (all in the brainstem).

38
Q

What system controls our circadian cycle?

A

A circadian rhythm is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus controls the release of hormone melatonin from pineal gland.

It detects the onset of light in the morning through a visual signal - it takes a number of days before it can reset the clock to a new time zone when travelling hence, jetlag - amount of melatonin released into the body takes a while to adjust.

39
Q

What is “sleep pressure” and what is responsible for it?

A

Adenosine builds up in the brain while we are awake.
Adenosine increases sleepiness (sleep pressure) by inhibiting alertness centres (esp ACh in pons) and stimulating sleep centres (preoptic area)

Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors - prevents it from having an effect in the preoptic area and preventing sleepiness.

40
Q

What area and neurotransmitter is implicated in the onset of sleep?

A

Preoptic area (anterior hypothalamus) - destruction of preoptic area can cause insomnia; stimulation can induce sleep.

Neurons in preoptic area contain GABA; these neurons inhibit ACh, 5HT and NA arousal systems in brainstem

41
Q

What happens to EEG activity during sleep?

A

When we’re awake, the electrical activity in our brains is high frequency and ‘noisy.’ Sleep is characterized by slow rhythmic patterns of electrical activity in the brain (‘slow-wave sleep).

Slow-wave sleep: Role of reciprocal connections between thalamus and cortex in orchestrating synchronised neuronal activity

42
Q

What are the characteristics of REM sleep?

A

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep: At multiple times during the night, brain waves become desynchronised (like when awake) and the eyes dart back and forth.

Amount of REM increases during the night, but decreases across lifespan - foetus has a lot of REM (50%) for newborn and 20% in adults)
Alcohol reduces REM sleep including in utero

43
Q

What causes REM sleep?

A

REM sleep is caused by neurons in Pons that contain acetylcholine and stimulate neurons in the thalamus, which project to the visual cortex - visual pathway woken up.

During REM sleep we are paralysed

  • ACh neurons in pons stimulate neurons in medulla which ultimately inhibit motor neurons in the spinal cord - paralysis
  • Destruction of these neurons in medulla causes animals to become very active during REM sleep (no longer paralysed)
44
Q

What is the brain’s primary reward pathway?

A

Medial forebrain bundle (mfb) is a bundle of noradrenaline and dopamine fibres travelling from brainstem to forebrain. Dopamine axons in mfb make greatest contribution to rewarding effect of electrical stimulation.

Many addictive drugs boost the release of dopamine in mfb e.g. cocaine

45
Q

What is lateralization?

A

Hemispheric Lateralisation: differences between the two cerebral hemispheres:

Right hemisphere receives sensory input from left; and controls motor response on left side of the body

Left hemisphere receives sensory input from right; and controls motor response on the right side of the body

46
Q

What functions are lateralized?

A

Several functions are lateralized; meaning one side is more dominant than the other. e.g. hand preference indicates the superiority of one hemisphere

Primates are known to show a hand preference but it is equally distributed across the population - equally as many animals show left handedness as right handedness.
Humans have a large bias for right handedness (9 in 10) - most likely because speech and language are lateralized to the left hemisphere.

Language is the most strikingly lateralized: For most of us, the left hemisphere controls speech and is better at comprehension.

47
Q

What is aphasia and the dichotic listening task?

A

These present evidence for left hemisphere dominance.

Aphasia after a stroke - syndrome for language impairment occurring in people who have brain damage in portions of the brain responsible for language

Dichotic listening task: people understand a word faster if presented to right ear - it is a very useful paradigm for evaluating language deficits associated with brain damage such as after a stroke.

48
Q

What are the two forms of aphasia?

A

Broca’s Area - Expressive Aphasia

  • Lower posterior region of the left frontal lobe
  • Broca’s aphasia is not just a motor problem and victims have no problem understanding speech but have difficulty trying to fluently speak

Wernicke’s Area - Fluent Aphasia

  • Posterior region of left temporal lobe
  • Damage causes problems with comprehension of speech
  • Can generate language but the language seems to be meaningless
49
Q

What is a split-brain patient?

- what did Roger Sperry find?

A

Information is shared between hemispheres, but in ‘split brain’ patients with intractable epilepsy, a surgery to cut the corpus callosum was done.
They can still walk, talk and suffer little or no impairments of intelligence or emotion BUT reported some disquieting difference between what left and right hands did.

Sperry found that a patient could name an object placed in the right hand but not in the left.

50
Q

What can the right hemisphere do?

A

Early ideas theorised that the right brain was submissive to the left. But the right hemisphere can comprehend simple language and contributes more than the left brain to adding and interpreting emotional content in speech such as sarcasm.

It is also better at producing and interpreting emotion in general e.g. facial expression

51
Q

Where is the hippocampus located?

A

Temporal lobe

52
Q

What syndrome can damage to the hippocampus cause?

A

Damage to the hippocampus causes severe anterograde amnesia (can remember old stuff but can’t learn anything new).

Deficit only in creating new long-term memories, as patients with hippocampal damage can retain new information in short-term memory - hippocampus doesn’t store memories

Patients like HM show normal procedural learning even though they can’t recall having done a task before

53
Q

Who was Henry Molaison?

A

Henry received brain surgery to treat intractable epilepsy. The surgeon removed the hippocampus on both sides (as well as amygdalae and some surrounding cortex)
The surgery worked as a treatment for epilepsy but rendered him unable to learn and remember new information (dense amnesia)

54
Q

What did Brenda Miller find about the hippocampus through Henry Molaison?

A

Brenda discovered that bilateral medial temporal-lobe resection in man results in an impairment of recent memory whenever the removal is carried far enough to damage portions of the hippocampus.

She established that the hippocampus was crucial for the long-term storage of information in memory.

55
Q

What is Wernicke-Korsakoff’s syndrome?

A

Wernicke-Korsakoff’s Syndrome: characterized by disproportionate memory loss in relation to other mental aspects.

Amnesia not only due to brain damage but also diseases
- Severe deficiency in vitamin B1 (thiamine) in chronic alcoholics triggers Wernicke Encephalopathy (confusion, and disordered gait and eye movements)

  • Untreated, WE leads to Korsakoff’s Psychosis, characterized by profound anterograde amnesia and some retrograde amnesia (and confabulation)
56
Q

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

- neurological changes?

A

A progressive degenerative disease characterised by:

  • Loss of newly learned information, followed by loss of distant memories, factual knowledge, and procedural skills
  • Widespread neurodegeneration in brain
  • Brain actually shrinks (sulci and ventricles enlarge)
  • Abnormal neural tissue present in brain: especially prevalent in cortex and hippocampus

Psychology 1002 (5 decks)

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