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Neuroscience Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the different planes of the brain

A

Horizontal, Sagittal (side), Coronal (C-shape)

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2
Q

What are the brain hemispheres?

A

2 cerebral hemispheres, separated by the longitudinal fissure

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3
Q

What are the cortical lobes

A

(2x) 4 lobes.

Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, Occipital. (Fin touched his penis once).

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4
Q

Function of the Frontal lobe?

A

(Think of self speaking in front of a class - planning, complex thinking needed and are judged by peers).
Intellectual functioning, reasoning, thought processes, memory.

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5
Q

Function of the temporal lobe

A

(Tempo - listening to music. Auditory, memory - singing along with lyrics. Emotion of song)

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6
Q

Function of parietal lobe

A

(Piranha - bites you)

Receives and interpreted sensation, including pain, touch, pressure.

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7
Q

Function of Occipital lobe

A

(Opticians)

Understanding visual images and written words.

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8
Q

Spinal cord vertebral column regions

A

(Crunchy breakfast at 7, tasty lunch at 12, light dinner at 5, supper).

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9
Q

What are the components of a spinal root

A

A mixed nerve carrying motor, sensory, autonomic signals between the spinal cord and rest of body (PNS).
Sensory info is carried by sensory neurons in dorsal roots to spinal cord via dorsal horn. The cell bodies for these sensory neurons are clustered together in dorsal root ganglion, found alongside the spinal cord.
Motor neurons leave the spinal cord via ventral horn and coalesce to form a ventral root.

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10
Q

Foramen (holes) of the base of the skull

A

(Ollie Rowett Once Shagged Many Asian Girls)

Optic canal

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11
Q

How is the neural tube formed

A
  • Nervous system develops from the ectoderm.
  • Notochord in mesoderm signals ectoderm to form a thickened neural plate.
  • Neural plate folds over and mitosis forms a neural groove.
  • Either side of neural groove are neural folds
  • these fuse at midline to form the neural tube.
  • this forms 3 divisions, neural tube, neural crest and epidermis (top layer).
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12
Q

What happens if neural tube fails to close

A

Spina Bifida

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13
Q

What is the function of the outer ear

A

The shape of the pinna and ear canal gathers sound energy and directs sound waves towards ear canal and focuses it on the tympanic membrane. Vibration of tympanic membrane. Outer ear also amplifies sound.

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14
Q

How is the outer ear innervated

A

CN10

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15
Q

What is the inner ear composed of?

A

Ossicular chain - malleus,incus,stapes

Eustachian tube - connects throat to middle ear

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16
Q

Function of ossicular chain

A

Transmits vibrations from tympanic membrane to oval window. Matches low-impedance airborne sounds to higher impedance fluid of inner ear. Amplifies sound

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17
Q

What does impedance matching refer to

A

Sound (low impedance) to water (high impedance) normally results in 99%+ energy reflected. Middle ear overcomes this problem by boosting pressure at tympanic membrane 200 fold.

  • area of tympanic membrane much larger than round window - force per area much greater.
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18
Q

How does middle ear protect inner ear from acoustic trauma

A

Movement of ossicles may be stiffened by 2 muscles which contract in response to loud sounds, reducing transmission.
Stapedius muscle - Stapes
Tensor tympani muscle - malleus

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19
Q

What is the innervatjon of the stapedius muscle and tensor tympani muscle

A

Stapedius = CN7 (facial)

Tensor tympani = CN5 (trigeminal)

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20
Q

Function of Eustachian tube

A

Ventilation of middle ear space, drainage of mucus secretions. Controls pressure within middle ear, equal with outside.

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21
Q

What’s the inner ear composed of?

A

Vestibular system - semi circular canals + otolithic organs (utricle and saccule).
Cochlea - 2 windows (round and oval) 3 cavities (Scala tympani, Scala media, Scala vestibuli)

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22
Q

What structures of the cochlea contain perilymph

A

Scala tympani, Scala vestibuli

- similar composition to CSF = rich in sodium, poor in potassium.

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23
Q

What structure contains endolymph

A

Scala media (cochlea duct)- very rich in potassium

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24
Q

What is the helicotrema

A

Where the Scala vestibuli and Scala media meet

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25
What is the function of the windows
Connects cochlea with middle ear, oval window (base of Scala vestibuli- vestibule is like an entrance, so entrance to inner ear) and round window (Scala tympani). - Oval window undergoes pressure from stapes. - Round window seals base of tympanic window and is used to relieve pressure.
26
Which cavity of the cochlea house the organ of corti
Scala media
27
What does the organ of corti sit on?
Basilar membrane
28
How many rows are there of: a) inner hair cells b) outer hair cells?
a) 1 - have 95% afferent nerve fibres | b) 3
29
Is the base or apex of basilar membrane wider ?
Apex wider and less stiff = sensitive to low freq, | Base narrow and stiff = sensitive to high freq
30
What structures are present on the IHCs and OHCs
Stereocilia
31
What connects adjacent stereocilia and what happens when the basilar membrane vibrates?
Tip links connect adjacent stereocilia. When basilar membrane vibrates, stereocilia bend: Tip links open k+ channels -> voltage change opens Ca2+ -> neurotransmitter auditory firing.
32
What can damage stereocilia?
Antibiotics
33
What is the first part of the auditory pathway?
ECOLI 1. Ear receptors (8th Cranial nerve). 2. Cochlear nucleus 3. Superior Olivary nucleus (medulla) 4. Lateral lemniscus (pons) 5. Inferior Colliscus. (Midbrain)
34
What is the IMAuditory pathway
Inferior colliculus Medial geniculate body Auditory cortex
35
What is intortion?
Internal rotation towards midline
36
What is extortion
External rotation away from midline
37
What is the action of medial rectus on the eyeball?
Adduction (if have hands separate and then put together = add. Towards middle)
38
What’s the action of lateral rectus
Abduction (towards side)
39
What’s the action of superior rectus
Intortion, elevation, adduction
40
What’s the action of inferior rectus.
Depression, adduction, extortion
41
What’s the action of superior oblique muscle?
Corrects rotation of eye which occurs when looking down and using inferior rectus. - intortion - depression (Doesn’t cancel out downward movement)
42
What’s the action of the inferior oblique on the eyeball
- cancels out rotation of superior rectus - Extorsion - Elevation (only corrects rotation)
43
What does the vestibule apparatus consist of?
3 semi-circular canals and 2 saclike swellings, the utricle and saccule - all of which lie in the temporal bone on either side of the head.
44
What do the hair cells in the semicircular canal detect?
angular acceleration during the rotation of the head - nodding head up and down, shaking head from side to side,
45
What do the olithic organs detect
- Linear acceleration | - Changes in head position relative to gravity
46
Neurons communicate via 2 types of synapse. What are they?
Chemical - majority | Electrical
47
Give 3 types of glial cells in the CNS
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia (Schwann cells are type of glial cells - only in PNS)
48
What’s the function of microglia
They are immune cells of the CNS - phagocytic and immune surveillance, synaptic plasticity
49
What is the function of astrocytes
Star-like cells, most numerous glial cells in the CNS. Involved in homeostasis- buffer potassium ions, glutamate. Neurovascular coupling - communication between nerves and capillaries in the brain. Metabolic support.
50
What is the function of oligodendrocytes
Myelinating cells of the CNS. Form myelin sheath. Interrupted by nodes of ranvier - Saltatory conduction.
51
Features of the BBB
1) continuous basement membrane - lacks fenestrations 2) endothelial tight junctions 3) astrocyte end feet 4) pericytes - wrap around endothelial cells that line the capillaries and control CBF. 5) need specific transporters for glucose , water, essential ions
52
What is the choroid plexus?
Frond like (leaf like) projections in the ventricles of the brain. Formed by ependymal cells which line the ventricles. Main site of cerebrospinal fluid production. Gap junctions between cells form blood-csf barrier
53
What are the ventricles of the brain?
Set of communicating cavities within the brain. Responsible for the production, transport and removal of cerebrospinal fluid, which bathes the CSF.
54
Where is the majority of CSF produced?
Lateral ventricles - largest aggregation of choroid plexus.
55
What is a multipolar neuron?
A single axon (axon extends out from soma and has pre-synaptic terminals on end. 'Ax stuck into someones ma.') Soma (cell body). Has many dendrites (branches that come out of soma and receive signals from neutrons/muscles. 'Rites rhymes with kites. Kites fly into tree branches, and lightening can strike'.
56
What is a bipolar neuron?
Two branches leave the soma (cell body). Dendrites from one end and axon emerges from other end.
57
What is a unipolar neuron?
Single branch leaves the cell body. Branch then splits close to the cell body to supply dendrites.
58
What is a pseudo-unipolar neuron
Has a single axon which bifurcates close to the cell body with one dendritic end that extends towards periphery and other end with presynaptic terminals that extends centrally.
59
What is the function of myelin
Insulates and allows rapid conduction of action potentials along an axon (at nodes of ranvier).
60
What is the neuronal resting potential?
-70mv
61
How is the neuronal resting potential maintained?
3Na+ are pumped out of the cell for every 2K+ in. Requires ATP. Many Na+/K+ pumps. More potassium channels open (movement of K+ out of cell - not voltage gated).
62
What ion movements cause depolarisation and repolarisation
- Voltage gated Na+ channels open when AP reaches. Na+ movement causes depolarisation (+30mv). - Voltage gated Na+ channels close and voltage gated K+ channels open (repolarisation). - continues to repolarise until -75mv = hyperpolarisation - K+ channels close and natural permeability of neuron to Na+ and K+ allows neuron to return to its resting potential of -70mv.
63
Why is AP termed all or nothing
- AP only occurs of specific threshold is reached. | - Size of AP not related to threshold
64
How long does a refractory period last?
5-10ms
65
What is a absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period
``` Absolute = another stimulus given to neuron will not lead to a 2nd AP. Relative = Period of time during which a second stimulus, needs to be stronger to produce a 2nd AP. ```
66
Is a synaptic cleft a feature found in all types of synapses
only chemical, not electrical (have gap junctions).
67
Which synapse employ use of neurotransmitters evoke an AP
- Chemical | - electrical don't have control over but much faster
68
What is temporal summation
an AP is caused by repeated firings to reach threshold of excitation
69
What is spatial summation
one + presynaptic neurons triggering together causes threshold to be reached
70
5 processes of synaptic transmission
1. Manufacture of neurotransmitter 2. Storage in vesicle 3. Release from vesicle - by AP. 4. Interaction with post synaptic receptors - diffusion across synapse 5. Inactivation - break down or re-uptake
71
How is neurotransmitter released from vesicle?
- AP causes voltage gated calcium channels in presynaptic membrane to open and Ca2+ ions enter. - Exocytosis of vesicle, releases NT.
72
Give 3 examples of fast neurotransmitters
- ACh, GABA, Glutamate | - short lasting effects
73
What are neuromodulators? 3 examples?
Don't directly activate ion channels but work together to enhance excitatory or inhibitory response of receptors. - Dopamine, Noradrenaline, Serotonin
74
Define nociceptive pain
Pain derived from actual damage to non-neural tissue, it is due to the activation of nociceptors.
75
Define neuropathic pain
Pain caused by a primary lesion or dysfunction of the nervous system.
76
Describe C fibres
- unmelinated and smallest nerve fibres - Slow conduction speeds - Highest thresholds so detect nociceptive or painful stimuli - dull aching pain
77
Describe A Beta fibres
Large diameter, highly myelinated - quick conduction. Low thresholds, respond to light touch and conveying tactile information
78
Describe A delta fibres
Smaller in diameter and thinly myelinated. | High activation threshold - thermal and mechanical stimuli
79
What is a dorsal root ganglion
- present on dorsal root (sensory, posterior root of spinal cord) - cluster of cell bodies of sensory nerve fibres - Pseudo-unipolar first order neurons - can be source of pain pathology
80
How does pain cause nociceptor transduction?
- If pain stimulus strong enough to stimulate receptor a generator potential occurs. - Synaptic transmitters (glutamate, substance P, CGRP) released and cause generator potential to be released -> action potential. - C fibres contain both gluatame and substance P, A beta fibres lack substance P.
81
What is hyperalgesia?
- Tissue damage - bradykinin, prostaglandin E2 are released. Both reduce nociceptive action potential threshold - increasing their sensitivity to stimuli
82
What is the spinothalamic tract
- Sensory pathway that carries pain, temp, and touch info from the body
83
What is the STT (spinothalamic tract) pathway- 1st order neurons
- 1st order neurons: transmit info into dorsal root ganglion. Enter at pons and descend to medulla, where form the STT.
84
STT pathway: 2nd order neurons
2nd order neurons: originate in spinal cord and desiccate a few levels above site of entry. - then form the anterolateral tract
85
What is the anterolateral tract
- lateral STT (pain and temp.) | - anterior STT (crude touch)
86
STT: 3rd order neurons
- ascend to thalamus and terminate in the somatosensory cortex on the post central gyrus of the parietal lobe.
87
what is the Trigemino-thalamic tract ?
- sensory pathway that carries pain, temp and crude touch info from the face/head/neck.
88
TTT pathway
- 1st order: enter pons -> descend into medulla - 2nd order: medulla -> thalamus - 3rd order: somatosensory cortex on post central gyrus of the parietal lobe.
89
Where is the insula located
lies within the brain via the sylvian fissure
90
Role of the insula in pain recognition
- subjective perception of pain. It is where the degree of pain is judged.
91
What is the role of the cingulate gyrus in pain recognition
provides an emotional response to pain | - located within limbic system
92
Where is the periaqueductal grey located?
- gray matter located around the cerebral aqueduct | - in the midbrain
93
What does the periaqueductal grey contain?
A high concentration of opiod receptors and endogenous opiods
94
What is the effect of stimulating opioid receptors
Can reduce neuronal sensitivity and so reduce the pain sensation. Can be activated under situations of extreme stress
95
How can opioids be used as analgesia
Bind to inhibitory G-protein coupled receptors in the brain/spinal cord
96
What is the Melzack-Wall pain gate?
Idea that non-painful input can close the gate to painful input, so prevent pain sensation from travelling to somatosensory cortex. - non-noxious stimuli can prevent pain as the large fibres can override the small pain fibres.
97
Treatment for pain
- analgesics - acupunture - exercise - hypnotherapy
98
How is venous blood drained in the brain?
- Superficial veins drain into the venous sinuses
99
Where are the venous sinuses in the brain formed?
- between the meningeal and periosteal dural layers

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