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Year 3 > Neuroscience > Flashcards

Neuroscience Flashcards

1
Q

7 main parts of the CNS

A

Spinal cord, Medulla Oblongata, Pons, Cerebellum, Midbrain, Diencephalon, Cerebrum.

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2
Q

What is the corpora quadrigemina?

A

4 hills, top bumps = Superior Colliculi. bottom bumps = Inferior Colliculis.

Located on the posterior surface of the midbrain

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3
Q

Where do nuclei reside?

A

CNS (midbrain)

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4
Q

Where do ganglia reside?

A

PNS

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5
Q

What is the midbrain in control of?

A

Motor movement and eye and auditory processing

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6
Q

What does the Cerebellum mediate?

A

Coordination, balance and muscle tone

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7
Q

Diencephalon components

A

Thalamus, Hypothalamus and pineal gland

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8
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

Act as a switchboard to cerebral hemisphere and cortices, sends and receives signals from cortex.
Important for sleep and wakefulness, coordination of information.

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9
Q

How does the thalamus act as a relay?

A

Fibres project into thalamus, which coordinates the information and projects fibres back into the cortex.
Has links to basal ganglia and cerebellum.

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10
Q

How many layers of grey matter is the outer cortex?

A

6

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11
Q

What is the inner portion comprised of?

A

White matterr

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12
Q

Neocortex

A

6 layers, newer evolutionary part of brain, responsible for language and conscious thought

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13
Q

Neocortex

A

6 layers, newer evolutionary part of brain, responsible for language and conscious thought

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14
Q

Any parts with less than 6 layers

A

Allocortex

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15
Q

Allocortex sections

A

Subdivided into the archicortex and paleocortex

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16
Q

Ridges

A

Gyri

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17
Q

Grooves

A

Sulci

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18
Q

Two important ridges:

A

Central sulcus and lateral sulcus

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19
Q

Why are these ridges important?

A

Used to separate functionally important lobes of the brain

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20
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Vision processing region

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21
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Processing and sensory input, long term memories, emotion and language perception

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22
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Integrates sensory information including touch, spatial awareness and navigation

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23
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Decision making and planning

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24
Q

Main function of brainstem

A

Regulation of heart and breathing rate

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25
Q

Which part of the cortex is important for higher functions such as language and cognition?

A

Neocortex

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26
Q

Dendrites

A

Recieve messages from other cells

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27
Q

Terminal branches of axons

A

Form junctions with other cells

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28
Q

Axons

A

Pass messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

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29
Q

Neural impulse

A

Electrical signal travelling down the axon

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30
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Covers axon of neurons to help speed neural impulses

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31
Q

Cell body

A

Cell life support

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32
Q

Action potentials -

A

Electrical signals that enable rapid signalling within neurons

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33
Q

Chemical communication

A

Way in which signals are transferred between neurons at the synapses

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34
Q

How are changes in membrane potentials generated?

A

By movement of ions across the membrane

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35
Q

What ion is responsible for resting potential?

A

K+

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36
Q

What ion is responsible for action potential?

A

Na+

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37
Q

How are action potentials described

A

As an all or nothing response - UNIDIRECTIONAL

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38
Q

Amino acid neurotransmitters

A

Glutamate, Aspartate, GABA and glycine

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39
Q

What is the major excitatory neurotransmitter?

A

Glutamate

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40
Q

How does Glutamate release work?

A

Synthesised by enzymes from glutamine –> glutamate
Packed into secretory vesicles
When synapse fuses with membrane - releases into synapse

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41
Q

What is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter?

A

GABA

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42
Q

Biogenic amines role

A

Regulate brain function, implicated in a wide range of cognitive functions

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43
Q

What do biogenic amines often modulate?

A

Effects of glutamate and GABA

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44
Q

Examples of Biogenic amines

A

Catecholamines (Dopamine, Norepinephrine and Epinephrine), Serotonin and Histamine

45
Q

What do defects in biogenic amines lead to?

A

Most pyschiatric disorders

46
Q

Dopamine role

A

Plays an essiential role in coordination of body movements and interaction of ventral tegmental area neurons which have central roles in reward and motivation circuits.

47
Q

What is the link between
Dopamine and Parkinsons

A

Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra degenerate, giving rise to the characteristic tremors.

48
Q

Where do recreational drugs usually function?

A

Ventral tegmental area neurons - alter dopamine release by modulating signalling/breakdown

49
Q

Serotonin role

A

Links to mood and the bowels

50
Q

What has research shown about serotonin production

A

Enteric neurons can produce it in response to things happening in the gut.

51
Q

Small molecule neurotransmitters examples

A

Acetylcholine, Glutamate, Gaba, Biogenic amines

52
Q

What do all small molecule neurotransmitters have in common?

A

They are all produced and released quickly

53
Q

Neuropeptide features

A

Encoded by genes
Slow life cycle
Long range action
Chain of amino acids

54
Q

Life cycle of a peptide transmitter

A
  1. Transcription
  2. Vesicle
  3. Ca2+ dependent exocytosis
  4. Receptor binding
  5. Inactivation
  6. Diffusion
55
Q

Which neurotransmitter is faster peptide or small molecule?

A

Small molecule
Peptide slow

56
Q

Post synaptic effects of peptide neurotransmitters

A

Can activate at low protein concentration
Synaptic and distanced targets

57
Q

Examples of neuropeptides

A

Orexin, Vasopressin/Oxytocin, Endorphin, somatostatin

58
Q

Two classes of neurotransmitter receptors

A

Ligand gated ion channels - ionotropic and G-protein coupled receptors - metabotropic

59
Q

How do ligand gated ion channels work?

A

Transmitter binding opens an ion channel, causes changes in post synaptic potential

60
Q

How do G protein-coupled receptors work

A

Transmitter binding activates a G protein, this activates effectors which induces cellular signalling

61
Q

Examples of Excitatory transmitters with gate cation channels

A

Acetylcholine and glutamate

62
Q

Examples of inhibitory transmitters with gate anion channels

A

GABA, glycine

63
Q

NMDA

A

Agonist N-methyl-D-asapartate

64
Q

AMPA

A

Agonist alpha amino-3-hydroxy-5-methlisoxazoleproprionic acid

65
Q

What are NMDA and AMPA

A

Types of glutamate receptor

66
Q

What does AMPA mediate

A

Fast excitatory neurotransmission

67
Q

What are the effects of agonists such as benzodiazepines and barbituates?

A

Drowsiness and calmness effect

68
Q

What are responses to G-protein coupled receptor activation

A

Phosphorylation, Transcription of cAMP and activation of kinases

69
Q

How are fast responses through ion channels achieved?

A

By Membrane potentials

70
Q

How are slow synaptic responses achieved?

A

Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and transcriptional regulation

71
Q

How does neurotransmitter release occur?

A
  1. Action potential comes down the axon, leads to voltage gated calcium channels opening
  2. Ca2+ enters, causing fusion of vesicles to synaptic membrane
  3. NT released from Ca2+ influx, exocytosis from vesicles
72
Q

What catalyses the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane

A

SNARE proteins

73
Q

What are the SNARE Proteins?

A

Synaptotagmin and Synaptobrevin, mediate the binding of vesicles to the plasma membrane

74
Q

Synaptobrevin

A

Syntaxin, SNAP-25 forms tight complex

75
Q

Synaptotagmin

A

Acts as a Ca2+ sensor and triggers rapid fusion

76
Q

Which part of the brain is affected in Alzheimers?

A

Hippocampus, important for memory storage - causes severe dementia

77
Q

What is seen in autopsy patients with Alzheimers?

A

Atrophied brain, Ventricle enlarged, Amyloid Plaques and intracellular filaments

78
Q

Brain areas affected in alzheimers

A

Cortex, Hippocampus, Ventricles

79
Q

What are amyloid plaques

A

Extracellular aggregates of insoluble beta-amyloid peptides
AB42

80
Q

What are intracellular filaments

A

Neurofibrillary tangles formed y hyperphosphorylated forms of microtubule associated protein tau.

81
Q

What is the cellular pathology of Alzheimers?

A
  • Extracellular aggregates of insoluble B-amyloid peptides
  • Intracellular tau tangles
  • Neuronal death
82
Q

Genetic causes of Alzheimers

A

APP, PSEN1 and PSEN2

83
Q

What does APP encode

A

Amyloid precursor protein

84
Q

How does APP mutations lead to amyloid plaque formation

A

Abnormal processing of APP, leads to aggregation of excess AB42 as a result of APP cleavage.

85
Q

Criticisms against the amyloid cascade hypothesis

A
  • Plaques are present in cognitively normal individuals
  • Amyloid hypothesis has so far failed clinically
86
Q

What is Parkinsons

A

Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra

87
Q

Symptoms of Parkinsons

A
  • Slowness/absence of movement, rigidity and resting tremor
  • Difficulty initiating movement
  • Slow movement
  • Stiff and inflexible muscles
88
Q

Why do dopaminergic neurons degenerate?

A

Due to Lewy bodies, they are inclusion bodies that are abnormal aggregates of protein which develop inside nerve cells affected by parkinsons.

89
Q

What causes Lewy Bodies?

A

Familial forms of PD show mutations in the gene SCNA, encodes a-synuclein.

Gut microbiome

90
Q

How do aggregates form in PD?

A

a-synuclein misfolds, which causes other proteins to misfold until clumps form in the brain

91
Q

Which techniques are used to look at microbiome composition in human samples

A
  • 16s rRNA sequencing
  • DNA sequencing –> Shotgun
  • Metabolomics
  • Metagenomics
92
Q

Techniques used to assess causative relationship of gut microbes and brain function?

A
  • Use of germ free mice, infect with fecal transplant
  • Cut vagus nerve - route of communication lost
93
Q

Examples of how gut microbes perform functions important to the host

A
  • Extract energy from host indigestible carbohydrates
  • Produce vitamins (K)
  • Develop gut and systemic immunity
  • Prevent pathogenic colonization
  • Maintenance of the intestinal barrier
94
Q

Cultivation dependent techniques of studying microbiome

A
  • Microbiology
  • Growth kinetics
  • Morphology
95
Q

DNA based approaches

A

16S rRNA, 18s, iTS gene sequencing.

96
Q

What is the simplest type of sequencing

A

16s rRNA

97
Q

Why is the 16s rNA gene used

A

Varies a lot between bacterial species, allows classification of bacteria present

98
Q

What does Metagenomics assess?

A

All genes of all the bacteria, determines sequences of entire genomes via shotgun sequencing

99
Q

What was seen in patients with Alzheimers disease?

A

Less microbiome diversity, not as many species, species richness was different

100
Q

Mechanisms by which microbes can alter brain function

A
  • Neurotransmitter, Immunity, Vagus nerve. and Bacterial Molecules.
101
Q

How do microbes alter brain function through neurotransmitter?

A

Microbes can affect cells in a way that causes NT release, which can affect nerve cells in the enteric NS and beyond

102
Q

How do microbes alter brain function through Immunity?

A

Immune cells in the gut respond to what is happening within the gut an

103
Q

How do microbes alter brain function through the Vagus Nerve?

A

Connects gut to NS, pathway of communication

104
Q

How do microbes alter brain function through Bacterial Molecules?

A

Microbes produce metabolites which can alter the activity of cells in the blood-brain barrier

105
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12

106
Q

What are the sensory functions of the vagus nerve

A

Coordinates sensory information from the organs in the chest and trunk

107
Q

What are the motor functions of the Vagus Nerve

A

Stimulate muscles in organs in chest and trunk, including those in the digestive tract

108
Q

What sort of receptor is NMDA

A

Voltage-dependent

109
Q

What blocks NMDA at resting potential

A

Mg2+

Year 3 (4 decks)

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