Neuropsychology Deck Motor Systems On

Question 1

Behavior: Definition

Answer 1

Purposeful, goal-directed body movements resulting from controlled skeletal muscle activity

Question 2

Subcortical Motor Structures

Answer 2

• Basal Ganglia: outputs back to cortex; modifies or changes grip force exerted by muscles under control of the cortex
• Cerebellum: computational machine

Question 3

Path of Movement stimuli to movement

Answer 3

1. visual information locates target EXAM
2. Frontal-lobe motor areas (pre-frontal cortex) plan the movement and issue the command
3. Spinal cord carries the information to the limb
4. Motor neurons carry the message to the muscles
5. Basal ganglia judges grip force (if hand movement)
6. Cerebellum corrects movement errors
7. Spinal cord carries sensory info to brain
8. Sensory cortx receives info: move accomplished

Question 4

Cortical Path for Movement

Answer 4

1. Posterior cortex provides sensory info to frontal cortex
2. Prefrontal cortex plans movement in advance of the behavior
3. Premotor cortex organizes movement sequences
4. Motor cortex porduces specific movements (then modified by brainstem) EXAM (eg where do visually guided behaviors originate?)

Note: M1 in anterior parietal lobe next to posterior frontal lobe so close - no need for white matter tract

Question 5

Hierarchy of Motor Control

Answer 5

1. Posterior Cortex: provides information to Frontal Lobe (sensory/perceptual info to plan goals)
2. Prefrontal Cortex: (most anterior part frontal cortex) - cognitive activity that may result in behavor or inhibition of behavior damage: disinhibition
3. Motor Cortices: a) Primary b) Premotor c) Supplementary; all in frontal lobes and project directly to spinal cord via corticospinal tract
4. Brain stem: integrates visual and vestibulary info with somatosensory input to modify movement: a) RAS b) Vestibular Nuclei - position c) Inferior olivary complex -coordination via projections to cerebellum

Question 6

Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum & Movement

Answer 6

• Basal Ganglia: large cluster of neurons and gets input from many cortical areas; projects to thalamus then to cortex re motor planning; modulates muscle force
• Cerebellum: input from the spinal cord, projects to brainstem and thalamus, improves movement accuracy: compares descending motor command with info about resulting motor action
• damage: ​wide stance walking - can’t maintain coordinated movements to preven falling

Question 7

Central Pattern Generators

Answer 7

• local circuits of interneurons in spinal cord and brainstem that drive rhythmic patterns of movement
• organize muscle movements (e.g. alternating stepping movements) even in absence of input from the cerebral cortex
• one central pattern generator sent to same muscles in both limbs can create mirror images
• generates movement activity spontaneously via input from peripheral sensory neurons that adjust as needed

Question 8

Motor Neurons

Answer 8

• Upper motor neurons: layer V and VI of primary motor cortex; heavily myelinated - project to spinal segments &synapse with neurons in grey matter of sp. cord segment assoc. with that partic. muscle it is designed to control
• Lower motor neurons: in grey matter of spinal cord; project out of sp. cord via ventral roots and synapse with target muscles (efferent)

Question 9

Cortico-motoneuronal System

Answer 9

• Hand control in primates: Direct, rapid and monosynaptic connections between the upper and lower motoneurons
• Relatively Independent Finger Movements(RIFMs)
• Some primates can only move fingers together like a claw (fewer cortico-motorneurons)
• Extremely fast and no need for feedback (no interneurons)

Question 10

Damage to Motorneurons

Answer 10

• Upper motorneuron:
  
  • weak or absent voluntary movements
  • increased muscle tone (rigidity)
  • altered reflexes
• Lower motorneuron:
  
  • reduced muscle tone
  • weak stretch reflex
  • atrophy of affected muscles
  • fibrillation

Question 11

Sliding Filament Theory

Answer 11

Two myofibrils: actin and myosin

Contraction: rotate the cross-bridges of the myosin along the Actin strands causing them to slide along one another (like a rowing boat)

Question 12

Muscle Wasting

Answer 12

if no synapsing of muscle and lower motoneuron at the neuromuscular junction - if not the muscle cannot retain its normal muscle tone (not always purposeful, can have resting rate of production of synapses)

Question 13

Neuromuscular Junction

Answer 13

• ‘synapse of pre-synaptic membrane of motoneuron and the postsynaptic membrane of muscle fiber
• motoneuron releases acetylcholine, which binds to nicotinic ACh receptors which depolarizes the muscle fiber and causes a cascade that results in muscle contraction

Question 14

Monosynaptic Reflex

Answer 14

• direct connection between a sensory and a motor neuron - only one synapse
• these are rare
• example: knee jerk reflex
• there is no interneuron in the circuit

Question 15

Polysynaptic Reflex

Answer 15

• more than one synapse because an interneuron lies between the incoming sensory neuron (in the integrating centre in grey matter) and the outgoing motor neuron in the circuit
• more flexibility in the response
• e.g.: need to flex bicep but to do so need to inhibity the stretch of the tricep which would fight against it so add an inhibitory interneuron to connect the bicep motor neuron to the tricep motor neuron and it will help to override the tricep stretch reflex

Question 16

Reflex Arc

Answer 16

• circuit for connecting inputs to outputs
• sensory neuron makes an excitatory connection to a motor neuron so that when the sensory neuron stimulated it activates the motor neuron
• if muscle being overstretched the sensory neuron will alert the motor neuron to contract the muscle

Question 17

5 Components Reflex Arc

Answer 17

1. Somatic Receptors (skin, muscles, tendons)
2. Afferent nerve fibres - carry signals from somatic receptors to dorsal horn (sp. cord) or brainstem
3. Integrating Center - synapse of the neurons
4. Efferent nerve fibres - carry motor info from spinal cord via ventral route to signal muscles
5. Effector muscle - innervated by efferent nerve fibre, carries out the response

Need all 5 for a controlled reflex arc; fixed innervation ratios but can modify with experience and each muscle ratio varies depending on degree of control exerted over the muscle by the nervous system

Question 18

Stretch Receptors

Answer 18

Two types:

1. In series with the muscle - when the muscle contracts it puts force on the golgi tendon organ then it signals the level of force of the muscle
2. In parallel with the muscle - it can’t tell the force, only the length of the muscle - muscle spindles

The control of muscle is necessary or else you would seize or convulse

Question 19

Muscle Agonists/Antagonists

Answer 19

• Opponent pairs
• Agonists: muscles that work together
• Input: heavily myelinated large caliber axons project to spinal cord and synapse with myelinated lower motorneurons, exit ventral root & go to muscle
• Feedback: from muscle and tendon in via dorsal root from muscle spindles (length) and golgi tendon organs (force) - feeds into position of body part

Question 20

Flacidity, Hypokinesias, Hyperkinesias

Answer 20

1. Flacidity: floppy limb due to damage to lower motor neurons (disconnected from sp. cord)
2. Hypokinesias: decreased ability to produce body movement - anormal basal ganglia activity (Parkinsonianism)
3. Hyperkinesias: exaggerated unwanted motor movements (Tourette’s, Huntington’s Chorea) - also associated with basal gangia

Question 21

Innervation Ratio

Answer 21

• average # of muscle fibres that are innervated by a single motor neuron
• low ratio: small muscles for fine motor skills (3:1 for extra ocular muscles). For every 3 muscle fibres there is 1 motor neuron axon that synapses to the 3
• large ratio: for power muscles - e.g. calve has 2000:1 ( every 2000 muscle fibres there’s 1 motor neuron that synapses so not much control)

Question 22

Corticospinal Tract

Answer 22

• Corticospinal tract: primary motor pathway CNS
• originates in precentral gyrus (M1) plus other cortical areas (corticospinal pathway)
• Axons go from layer V M1 into the internal capsule then forms cerebral peduncles then the decussation of the pyramids (white matter structures of medulla)
• Lateral Corticospinal Tract: M1 to decussate in pyramids then descend contralaterally for fine muscle control (limbs, digits)
• Ventral Corticospinal Tract: M1, descend ipsilaterally to decussate on spinal segment (larger muscles of trunk)

Question 23

Steps for Neural Control of a Muscle

Answer 23

1. Lower motorneuron excites muscle
2. The neuron dumps Ach into synaptic cleft of neuromuscular junction
3. Ach binds to nicotinic receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the muscle
4. Muscle contracts
5. Muscle spindle is strained and it sends afferent signal into the spinal cord via dorsal root
6. This creates FEEDBACK

Question 24

Motor Cortical Magnification Factor

Answer 24

• volume of cortex devoted to a body part is NOT proportional to its size but to the complexity of its behavioural repertoire (what it can do)
• Smaller the skeletal muscles, larger amount of cortex devoted to controlling it (facial muscles, oral cavity, hands)

Question 25

Upper Motor Neurons

Answer 25

• Originate in Layer V of primary motor cortex
• 2 separate tracts:
  
  • Corticospinal Tract: Pyramidal Tracts; pass through pyramids in medulla, terminate in ventral horn and synapse with lower motor neurons - fine limb movement
  • Corticobulbar Tract: originates in M1; terminates in pons and medulla (voluntary control of facial and jaw muscles, swallowing, tongue movem) - output via cranial nerves to muscles of face - speech, eating, facial gestures

Question 26

Penfield’s Montreal Procedure

Answer 26

• stimulated areas in S1 and M1
• Created the “homunculus” as a learning aid
• Large areas of S1 devoted to tip tongue, tip index finger, tip thumb
• Large areas of M1 devoted to control of thumb and forefinger, tongue, lips

Question 27

Movement Sequences

Answer 27

• dictionary of movement sequences - lexicon
• 3 aspects of volitional behavior:
  
  • part of body to be moved - from proprioceptive feedback from receptors, joints, etc (low level)
  • spatial location to which movement directed (visual feedback - high level)
  • Function to be achieved (high level feedback - whether you have achieved your goal)
• Feedback loops in all 3 and each different

Question 28

Mirror Neurons

Answer 28

• neurons that fire when we see others make a movement
• Can be used to imitating and understanding others’ actions
• they encode a complete action
• are mirror cells in premotor area (which plans & organizes the behaviour before execution)
• generally located in left hemisphere
• important for gesturing and verbal language
• import for recog of emotion (facial motor patterns)

Question 29

Brainstem and Motor Control

Answer 29

• Sends info re: posture, balance, control of autonomic nervous system
• (reflexive and inate) eating, drinking, standing upright, walking, grooming
• gateway into consciousness & planning and motor control
• NON-VOLITIONAL - so not interrupted, reflexive (even if decorticated, animal still walk or groom)
• eating: hypothalamus (re cessation) so if slow down, hypth will kick in & stop you

Question 30

Basal Ganglia & Movement

Answer 30

• Control of movement force
• How?
  
  • receives signal from motor cortex, limbic cortex & nigrostriatal dopamine pathway (and sends them back via the Thalamus) - so, no direct connection between B.G. and spinal cord
  • sends signals to motor cortex and substantia nigra in brainstem

Question 31

Basal Ganglia Pathways

Answer 31

1. Direct Pathway (positive feedback loop): Cortex to Putamen to Globus Pallidus internal to Thalamus and back to excite cortical activity (result: amplificaiton)
2. Indirect Pathway (negative feedback loop): Cortex to Putamen to Globus Pallidus external to Subthalamic Nucleus to Globus Pallidus internal to Thalamus and back to inhibit cortical activity (NOTE: there are at least 2 additional synapses in the indirect pathway so latency into cortex is slower)

Question 32

Disorders of the Basal Ganglia

Answer 32

1. Parkinson’s: loss of dopamine cells in the substantia nigra; muscular rigidity / shuffle walk / hypokinetic symptoms / lack facial expression (corticobulbar tract issue)
2. Huntington’s Choria: hyperkinetic; destroys cells in caudate putamen; gentic, exaggerated movements (try to control anti-gravity musculature)
3. Tourette’s Syndrome: damage to caudate putamen; unwanted tics and, at times, vocalizations (expression & speech are corticobulbar)

Question 33

Cerebellar Damage

Answer 33

• loss of timing and perception
• problems with movement accuracy
• calibrates the actions the body wants to perform
• show no evidence of learning if lesioned (i.e. can’t acquire the ability to correct motor movement to perform a visually guided behavior)

Question 34

7 Deficits w/ Cerebellar Lesions

Answer 34

1. Ataxia: wide gait walk (from alcoholism)
2. Dysmetria: loss of calibration for objects within reach
3. Dysdiadochokinesia: loss of control to do alternating movement of limbs (like flipping hands over together)
4. Asynergia: absence of coordin. muscles/body parts
5. Hypotonia: reduction in muscle tone
6. Nystagmus: disordered eye movement - oscillations, wiggling - try to fixate but can’t, no fovia feedback
7. Action Tremor: rhythmic oscilatory movement (e.g. resting hand tremor or head tremor, not volitional)

Question 35

Consciousness Definition

Answer 35

Awareness of external objects and thoughts or sensations arising from within one’s self

Question 36

Orienting Reflex

Answer 36

• reflexive responses that lead to the evaluation of the novelty of an external stimulus (unpredictable)
• the OR habituates with stimulus repetition (matched against a pre-exising neural code)

Question 37

Mental Chronometry

Answer 37

• measures reaction time - either simple reaction time or choice reaction time (greater latency)
• Processing cost: more complex, more time it takes to react, more “cost”
• Difference between the two latencies of simple and choice reaction times is indicative of how much time the brain takes to make the decision

Question 38

Functional Imaging

Answer 38

• Flow of H2O (blood mostly water) and measure the brain metabolism of participant while they are performing a task versus at rest
• will have increased blood flow in areas where there is more metabolic demands (activity)

Question 39

Oddball Paradigm

Answer 39

• Atttention on 2 stimulus - one infrequent with high info content, one frequent with low info content
• The oddball stimulus will evoke a different response than the frequent stimulus
• Selective attention task
• used to assess affect of drugs on attentional capacity of a person to volitionally switch their attention

Question 40

Theory of Attention and Glucose / ATP

Answer 40

Attention may be a mechanism for allocating metabolic resources (oxygen, glucose) to specific neural areas to conserve energy (need more glucose to make more ATP etc.)

Question 41

Endogenous / Exogenous Attentional Triggers

Answer 41

• Endogenous triggers: hunger emotion fatigue, fear
• Exogenous triggers: familiar face, loud sound, moving object in visual field

Question 42

Rubin’s Vase

Answer 42

• can’t see the vase and the face at the same time - one or the other
• hard to control which one you look at

Question 43

Hemineglect

Answer 43

• Failure to attend to one half (usually left) of the visual field, divided vertically; it’s a disorder
• typically damage to right parietal lobe
• a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of the field of vision i

Question 44

Biased-Competition Model of Attention

Answer 44

• neural processes compete with each other for metabolic resources (vision, hearing, taste, smell…)
• consciousness has limited capacity so not all enters so instead resources are allocated
• so..previous experiences or attitudes or instructions (i.e. biases) can affect which you “attend to” (stop sign warning example)

Question 45

Definition of Learning

Answer 45

• relatively permanent changes in behavior produced by experience
• Learning creates declarative and non-declarative memories
• most important evolution for learning: speech - transfer of info from one NS to another (or written) hs changed the nature of experience

Question 46

Perceptual Learning

Answer 46

• Identify objects and situations
• naming things

Question 47

Stimulus-Response Learning

Answer 47

• making a response when a particular stimulus is present
  
  • classical conditioning
  • operant conditioning - instrumental learning

Question 48

Motor Learning

Answer 48

• forming new circuits in the motor system
• basis for all behaavior

Question 49

Relational Learning

Answer 49

• identifying connections between and among stimuli
• integration of knowledge
• can include thoughts as well - i.e. connections between “learned things”

Question 50

Stimulus Response Learning

Answer 50

• always have an antecedant stimulus and response
• always causal relationship
• perception detects the stimulus and the motor system makes elicits a behavior and the respose is the consequence of that behavior

Question 51

Classical Conditioning

Answer 51

• Pair two different stimuli with a reflexive response (i.e. UCS that produces UCR)
• Add a NS (neutral stimulus)
• then…pair the NS and the UCS many times
• when the NS alone generates the “now” CR (previously UCR) you have :conditioning
• ie: start with a behav. already present and pair it with something that does not normally elicit that response to create a conditioned response
• Pavlov

Question 52

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 52

• Pair a behavior with a consequent stimulus
• If stimulus reinforcing: behavior more likely to occur in the future (positive reinforcement)
• If stimulus punishing: behavior less likely to occur in the future (negative reinforcement)
• reverse of Classical Conditioning

Skinner Box

manipulate the eviron. to increase probab. of the behavior - when rats got food, reinforced; increases prob. they will press lever again

Question 53

Fixed / Variable Intervals

Answer 53

Fixed Interval: get reinforced every “x” minutes (or every e.g. 2 weeks with pay check)- get a dip in “curve” in between then up again in anticipation - no incentive to work faster or produce more

Variable Interval: behavior reinforced on an inconsistent schedule (interval: time between reinforcements) so have to perform the behavior consistently “just in case”

Question 54

Variable/Fixed Ratio Schedules

Answer 54

Variable Ratio Schedule: response is reinforced after an unpredictable (or average) number of responses: creates a steady, high rate of responding (slot machines); reinforcement dependent on your behavior

Fixed Ratio Schedule: response in reinforced after a specified # of responses - produces a high, steady rate of responding (brief pause after reinforcement) cuz want the reinf. as soon as possible (car salesman example)

Ratio: the amount of responses

Question 55

Long Term Potentiation

Answer 55

• changes synaptic efficiency and that increases the probability that when “x” is present the circuit will fire
• Hippocampus and parahippocampal area important for long-term potentiation
• used to explain long term memory
• connections between neurons strengthen
• first 24 hours the LTP can be interfered with (e.g. shock) - rat on pedestal
• “long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between 2 neurons after repeated stimulation”

Question 56

Perforated Synapses

Answer 56

• After LTP can be generated (production of 2 receptor areas for synapse) to increase the probability of binding

Question 57

Mirror Neurons

Answer 57

• neurons that fire when the individual is watching an action being performed
• could be the neurological basis of observational learning
• e.g.: baby mimicking a facial expression

Question 58

Memory Stages

Answer 58

1. Sensory memory - brief (.25 of a second) representation of a stimulus
2. Short Term Memory - working memory
   
   1. limited capacity - 7 items
   2. Duration is about 30 seconds
3. Long Term Memory - large capacity and long duration - NO limit at all

Note: a) In order to demonstrate learning, you have to show you remember something and b) in order to demonstrate memory, have to demonstrate the person didn’t know it before

Question 59

Classifications of Memory

Answer 59

1. Declarative memory - explicit and readily available to conscious recollection
2. Episodic – memories of events
3. Semantic - memories of facts
4. Nondeclarative memory - implicit, unconscious knowledge
5. Perceptual – previously experienced stimuli
6. Motor (procedural) – learned behavioral sequences
7. Stimulus-response – learned responses to specific stimuli

Question 60

LT Memory and Reconsolidation

Answer 60

• Reconsolidation: consolidate a previously stored memory that you recall
• Can change something on the recall
• Why eye-witness testimony unreliable
• LTM is coded into cetegories and stored
• REM sleep may play into categorizing new items within LTM

Question 61

Recogntion/Recall/Relearning

Answer 61

• Recognition: cue is matched against a LTM (face?)
• Recall: general cue is used to search memory (exam)
• Relearning: learn material a 2nd time - less time to relearn 2nd time shows memory

Question 62

Acetylcholine and Memory

Answer 62

• acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter which nerves use to signal muscles to initiate or cease movement; activates pain responses, regulates sleep
• involved in encoding of new episodic memory
• lost early in Alzheimer’s - memory loss
• cholinergic pathway involved in memory/learning

Question 63

Limbic System and Memory

Answer 63

EXAM - know 7

1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
4. Frontal Cortex
5. Olfactory Cortex
6. Reticular Formation
7. Amygdala

Events that occurred that produce emotion are recalled more accurately & more efficiently than others

Question 64

6 Functions of Limbic System

Answer 64

1. Preservation of the Individual
   
   1. fight or flight
   2. Eating / Drinking
2. Preservation of species
   
   1. Sexual behavior
   2. Social Behavior
3. Emotional behavior
4. Memory
5. Emotional valence of sensory stimuli
6. Motivation

Question 65

Episodic Memory Processing

Answer 65

1. Sensory information
2. Short term memory
3. Rehearsal - produces consolidation
4. Long term memory

Note: Don’t rehearse episodic memory but DO rehearse procedural memory (i.e. every time you use cutlery you are re-learning / rehearsing)

Question 66

Varieties LTM

Answer 66

• Explicit / Declarative: (conscious recall)
  
  • Semantic Memroy (general knowledge - e.g. what had for breakfast, facts, events)
  • Episodic Memory (personal experiences)
• Implicit / Nondeclarative: (no conscious recall)
  
  • procedural memory (learned actions/skills)
  • not subject to forgetting
  • e.g. piano playing, riding bike, using utensils
  • stimulus-response / motor memories

Question 67

Hippocampal Place Cells

Answer 67

• pyramidal cells within hippocampus sensitive to spatial location where episodic learning occurred
• i.e.: you code for “place” - dog pees on pole leaving olifactory clue to enhance episodic memory in other dogs
• Each place cell responds maximally to one location, known as its spatial receptive field

Question 68

Serial Position Effect

Answer 68

• Tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst

Question 69

Theories of Forgetting

Answer 69

• Proactive interference: old info interferes with recall of new info
• Retroactive interference: new info interferes wtih recall of old info
• Decay: memory trace fades wtih time
• Motivated forgetting: loss of painful memories
• Retrieval Failure: info still in LTM but can’t be recalled because recall cue is absent

Question 70

Reasons for Inaccuracy of Memory

Answer 70

• Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source
• Sleeper effect: piece of info from an unreliable source is initially discounted then later recalled (but the source is forgotten)
• Misinformation effect: incorporate outisde info into our own memories

Question 71

Anterograde / Retograde Amnesia

Answer 71

• Anterograde Amnesia: difficulty forming new memories for events that happen after brain trauma; loss of relational learning ability; no new declarative memories
• Retrograde Amnesia: inability to recall events that happened prior to the trauma, previously formed declarative memories

Question 72

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Answer 72

• severe anterograde amnesia associated with chronic alcoholism caused by a vitamin B1 deficiency (needed for laying down new memories)
• Also confabulate - unknowingly make up false episodic memories - they think it’s true

Question 73

Henry Gustav Molaison’s Case

Answer 73

• surgical treatment for epilepsy: bilateral removal of parahippocampal gyrus and amygdala, 2/3 hippocampus medial temporal lobe
• perpetually lived in the “now”
• dense anterograde amnesia
• no longer convert short term to LTM (episodic)
• began to lose recognition of his own face (changed as he got older so did not recognize himself)

BUT: Procedural memory was fine

Question 74

Memory impairment re future

Answer 74

• The “future” requires memory
• ability to predict what you are going to do will be impaired because it requires recall - search memory about what you “were going to do” at that time
• also can’t prepare to reach goals if you can’t remember what they are - would not know to study for an exam if you did not remember you had one

Question 75

Anatomy of Speech Production

Answer 75

• Hypophonality: Whispering
• Air goes from longs to larynx then vibrates at different frequencies, producing voice pitch

Question 76

Formants

Answer 76

• A formant is a concentration of acoustic energy around a particular frequency in the speech wave
• position and height depends on the position of the tongue in the oral cavity (which is controlled by the cranial nerves
• Formant transitions carry speech information

Question 77

Producing Speech Sounds

Answer 77

• Limit to ability you can produce speech sounds over long distances eg. use vowels to howl
• ability to speak depends on your ability to rehearse the words over and over again and learn how to articulate them (re motor process)
• Neural output from language centers in brain then through speech centre in frontal lobes then to motor nerves of speech apparatus

Question 78

Innervation of Face / Oral Cavity

Answer 78

• LOW innervation ratio re these parts - (i.e. for fine motor coordination) e.g. 3:1 for the eye

Question 79

Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal Nerve

Answer 79

• Facial muscles
• Mandible: conrol of jaw, tensor veli palatini for back of throat and tensor tympani of middle ear
• Sensory info from head, jaw, face and sinuses AND tactile sensations from ANTERIOR 2/3 of tongue

Question 80

Cranial Nerve #VII Facial Nerve

Answer 80

• At junction of pons and medulla
• innervates ALL muscles of facial expression
• muscles in upper part of face are controlled by bilateral innervation from upper motor neuron tracts (hard to raise just one eyebrow)
• muscles in lower part of face are controlled ONLY by contralateral innervation
• Sensory component mediates taste NOT tactile

Question 81

Neural Basis of Smiling

Answer 81

• UPPER motoneuron: from corticobulbar tract - voluntary movements of cheeks and lips CN VII (a lesion won’t affect involuntary expression as controlled by exrapyramidal tract)
• LOWER motoneurons: a lesion will paralyze entire side of face so neither volun. or involun. input from upper motoneurons will generate facial expression

Question 82

Cranial Nerve VIII - Acoustic Nerve

Answer 82

• Originates in the medulla
• involved in the feedback process with the reception and production of speech, creating speech sounds (without the feedback: can’t tell what you are doing)
• Hearing is critical as feedback for speech learning and speech production

Question 83

Cranial Nerve IX - Glossopharyngeal Nerve

Answer 83

• Sensory aspect carries info from posterior 1/3 of tongue, velum, pharynx and tonsils (ie. gag reflex)
• activates the stylophangeus muscle - swallowing reflex

Question 84

Cranial Nerve X: Vagus Nerve

Answer 84

• Originates in medulla
• One of the motor nuclei of CNS controls the phyaryngeal constrictor muscles and the larynx
• Damage: hypophonality (breathiness)
• Also innervates the palate

Question 85

Cranial Nerve XI: Spinal Accessory

Answer 85

• originates in medulla
• innervates the muscles that raise the velum - back of the throat (which controls the coupling of oral and nasal cavities) - so they are interconnected for lots of sounds like “m”
• Controls muscles of neck

Question 86

Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

Answer 86

• originates in medulla
• controls tongue movement
• lesions of lower M.N. of this nerve result in non-symmetric eversion of the tongue (sticks out to the side)

Question 87

Psycholinguistics / Neurolinguistics

Answer 87

• relationship between language (grammer not actual speech) and the brain

Question 88

Receptive / Expressive Language

Answer 88

• Receptive Language: mediated by left temporo-parietal region (left hemisphere)
  
  • in 95% of right handers and 75% left
  • Wernicke’s area - no clear boundary, different in everyone
  • lesion studies not best because anatomical differences in this area in everyone
• Expressive Language: mediated by region in left inferior frontal gyrus
  
  • Broca’s area is confined to the pars opercularis
  • Arcuate Fasciculus joins Broca and Wernicke

Question 89

Arcuate Fasciculus

Answer 89

3 Pathways: (if damaged get speech symptoms)

1. Deep AF pathway: connects Wernicke and Broca
2. Shallow pathway 1: connects frontal / inferior parietal cortex
3. Shallow pathway 2: connects Wernicke with inferior parietal cortex

• auditory processing affecting language, music perception / motor programming of speech sounds
• language processing in the left hemisphere

Question 90

Aphasias

Answer 90

1. Conduction Aphasia: patient can’t repeat unfamiliar words (damage to arcuate fasciculus)
2. Expressive Aphasia: inability to generate normal speech (damage to frontal cortex Broca’s)
3. Fluent Aphasia: problems understanding spoken and written language - Wernicke’s - garble
4. Global Aphasia: difficulty communicating orally AND with comprehension
5. Deep dysphasia: word repetition deficits
6. Transcortical sensory aphasia: impaired comprehension, naming, reading and writing
7. Transcortical motor aphasia: transient mutism

Question 91

Reading Disorders

Answer 91

• Dyslexia: Acquired and Developmental
  
  • Acquired: reading impairment in person who previously had normal reading ability
  • Developmental: never acquire normal level of reading during childhood

Both associated with structural and functional brain abnormalities

Question 92

4 Acquired Dyslexias

Answer 92

1. Visual word form dyslexia: impaired sight reading
2. Phonological dyslexia: trouble reading pseudowords and non-words
3. Surface dyslexia: - what read and say not same, extract stuff from text that isn’t there
4. Deep dyslexia: semantic substitutions, can’t read non-words or abstract words

Question 93

Linguistic Info Processing Routes

Answer 93

1. Grapho-phonological (indirect) route: slow down the word and sound it out - get meaning from the sound (Teporal Lobe)
2. Lexico-semantic (direct) route: store the visual appearance of the word with meaning (may bypass Broca’s) - Occipital Temporal Junction

Question 94

Agraphia

Answer 94

• inability to write

1. Phonological: can’t spell non-words and real words spelled visually
2. Orthographic: can’t spell irregular words; regular and non-words spelled phonetically
3. Deep agraphia: can’t spell phonetically; make semantic substitutions

Question 95

Prosody/Narrative/Inference

Answer 95

• Prosody: intonation pattern or sound of an utterance; rhythm of speech
• Narrative: abiliy to construct/understand story line
• Inference: ability to “fill in the blanks”

Question 96

Hebb’s Rule

Answer 96

• Neurons that fire together wire together
• Creates stronger connections, synaptic efficiency
• increases the probability that when one neuron fires the others in the circuit will as well
• related to learning

Question 97

Homo Sapiens/Homo Economicus

Answer 97

• Homo Sapiens: relative preferences: change moment to moment
• Homo economicus: absolute preferences: never changing regardless of the comparison - having the infinite ability to make rational decisions and rationally calculate the costs/benefits of a decision

Question 98

Prospect Theory

Answer 98

• way people choose between probabilistic alternatives that involve risk, where the probabilities of outcomes are known
• how people choose between prospects and how they estimate the perceived likelihood of each of these options. (often biased)
• overweight small probabilities to guard against losses
• they will take the “sure” gain but gamble instead over a sure loss to try & lose “0”
• Amygdala and Insula (how to minimize loss)
• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (how to maximize gains)

Question 99

Framing Effect/ Endowment Effect

Answer 99

• Framing Effect: people can be manipulated into picking a particular option, depending on how you frame the question
  
  • framed as loss: choose the other
  • framed as gain: choose that one
• So..frame the risky one in a loss context and the certain one in a gains context
• Endowment Effect: people demand a higher price than they paid to sell an object they own as it has become endowed wtih greater value

Question 100

Delay Discounting

Answer 100

• Rewards that occur in the future have some risk of not being collected so they are discounted
• “Delay Discounting” reduces the value of the reward that is paid further in time (seen as a bigger risk)

Question 101

Attribution Effect

Answer 101

We explain our own behavior by the situation but other’s behavior is explained by their character

Question 102

Intuitive and Rational Decision Systems

Answer 102

• Intuitive Decision System (System 1)
  
  • ​non-conscious, intuitive level
  • independent of measured intelligence and attentional capacity
  • can’t say why you made that decision
• Rational Decision System (System 2)
  
  • ​conscious explicit level
  • can say why you made the decision
  • sequential processing which takes longer cuz slower
  • depends on intelligence and attention

Question 103

Rule re Lateral Frontal Lobe and Decisions

Answer 103

Info in from outside (i.e. evaluation of incoming information) is processed in the lateral region of the frontal lobe

(H. Economics) - Rational System 2 Process

Info from inside the brain (cognition) is processed in the medial part of the frontal lobe

(H. Sapiens) - rapid System 1 process

Question 104

Lateral Prefrontal Cortex and Decisions

Answer 104

• needed to suppress irrational decisions
• evaluates outside info (e.g. advice) - so it may inhibit an irrational decision you may have come to without the advice
• If this area suppressed or interfered with: more impulsive decision making

Question 105

Brain and Risk Seeking Behavior

Answer 105

• Risk Taking Behavior: Ventral Striatum and Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex - associated with the Endowment Effect
• Risk Adverse Behavior: Anerior Insula
• If damage to insula…more likely to gamble

Question 106

Amygdala and Framing Effect

Answer 106

• Amygdala more active during risky options when the question was framed as a “gain” and less active when it was framed as a “loss”

So: if you are not susceptible to the framing effect the frontal lobe will overcome the emotion associated with risk perception and instead take a more objective look

Question 107

Neural Basis: Subjective Value Decision Process

Answer 107

• Medial areas are more active when choosing rewards that are smaller and occur sooner
• Lateral areas are more involved when choosing rewards that are larger and later
• Medial prefrontal cortex - internal judgements
• Those ppl that are more patient: their subjective value does not deteriorate as fast
• Impulsive people it decays quickly

Question 108

Evaluation - Orbitofrontal Cortex

Answer 108

• receives input from sensory areas
• amygdala (modulates to determine good/bad) gets the sensory input and projects to the orbitofrontal cortex which then projects throughout the brain and then assigns a subjective value

Question 109

Values/Goals/Plans/Actions

Answer 109

• Values to Goals, Goals to Plans, Plans to Behavior/Action
• Once have the evaluation: feeds into supplementary motor area that programs responses to create a goal (what to do) then into plans (how to reach the goal) then manip. of muscles to achieve the goals that will = behavior

S ⇒⇒(Cog Decision⇒⇒Response) (last 2/3 all frontal lobe)

Question 110

Steps to Decision-Making

Answer 110

1. Values into Goals: orbitofrontal cortex (subjective value) - also modulates emotions (amygdala) re decisions
2. Goals into Plans: Prefrontal areas and Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (goal tracking: frontopolar cortex)
3. Plans into Behavior/Action: Presupplementary and supplementary motor areas - internally guided movements (also plan-selecting: dorsomedial prefrontal cortex)

Question 111

Fear Conditioning

Answer 111

• some species (humans too) exhibit fear conditioning that can enhance consolidation of episodic memory
• once a fear memory has been established it is relatively permanent

Question 112

Bottom Up/Top Down Emotion

Answer 112

• Bottom Up: immediate in-grained response to a stimulus (car pulls out in front of you); physiological reaction in the body causes the emotion (James-Lange Theory); more visceral, fight or flight type
• Top Down: conscious responses to the way we think about a situation; 3 steps: Stimulus / Self-talk about what’s happening / Feel something based on stimulus (Cannon-Bard Theory)

Question 113

Cannon-Bard Theory

Answer 113

• Top-down theory
• information about the emotion spreads from brain to body
• sensory info to cortex and hypothalamus / perception of emotion / hypothalamic pathway coordinates body’s part of the emotional response

Question 114

Modern “Two Factor” Theories

Answer 114

• Emotions can be both bottom up and top down
• Schacter and Singer experiment with the injected saline and epinephrine
• Emotions are based on both physiological arousal and cognitive label (cognitive - arousal theory)
• If someone is aroused they attribute it to their perception of the most plausible cause

Question 115

Valence/Arousal Network

Answer 115

• Valence Network: pleasantness and unpleasantness of emotion
• Arousal Network: the intensity of the emotion

Arousal will affect performance: the greater the arousal, the greater chance the episodic memory will be stored

Question 116

Amygdala input to Brain Regions

Answer 116

1. Lateral hypothalamus - increased HR, BP
2. Dorsal Motor Nucleus of Vagus - ulcers, urination
3. Parabrachial nucleus - increased respiration
4. Ventral tegmental area - behavioral arousal (dopam)
5. Locus Coeruleus - increased vigilance (adrenalin)
6. Dorsal lateral tegmental nucleus - cortical activation Acetylcholine (Ach)

Question 117

Yerkes & Dodson Law

Answer 117

• there is an optimal level of arousal to help attention and focus and if depart from that performance will change
• performance will drop if you are either under or over that optimal level
• Use ratio scale to measure
• linked to task complexity:
  
  • complex tasks are performed better at low levels of arousal
  • simple tasks are performed better at higher level of arousal
• Rehearsal of a task will bring it from complex to simpler and can then be performed even if higher arousal (like pilot example)

Question 118

Hippocampus and Emotion / Memory

Answer 118

• Anterior hippocampus: encoding and retrieving emotional content in episodic memories
• Posterior hippocampus: mediating spatial navigation abilities

Location and emotion of memories are 2 aspects that are recalled from episodic memory

If you reconstruct the smell, location and emotion of an episodic memory it can facilitate recall

Question 119

Learned Emotion: CER

Answer 119

• CER: Conditioned Emotional Response
• emotional relationships among learned objects
• an emotional response can be learned through operant or classical conditioning methods

Question 120

6 Basic Emotional Reactions

Answer 120

1. Happpiness
2. Anger
3. Fear
4. Sadness
5. Surprise
6. Disgust

Question 121

2 Neural Pathways Facial Expressions

Answer 121

1. Voluntary Facial Movements: primary motor cortex (corticobulbar projections)
2. Involuntary Facial Movements: extrapyramidal motor system with input from the limbic system (emotional state)

Question 122

Ventral Striatum

Answer 122

• Centre for pleasure and reward

Question 123

Insula and Emotion

Answer 123

• The insula regulates the sensory, subjective experience of emotions (produces whole body sensations associated with emotional states)

feel good component of the drinking is in the insula

Question 124

Motivational Drive

Answer 124

• Neural state evoled to increase the chance of species survival - can be external or internal

Question 125

Generic Control System

Answer 125

• comparison of what intend to do or want and what you actually did (control)
• Set point:reference - i.e. “just enough water” to quench thirst - drink ⇒ produces actuating signal and feedback (dilution of protein in the blood),feeds back to the “error detector” to compare what needed re H2O and what you drank. Difference between them is a #. If the # is Zero - took exactly what needed (no longer thirsty) Note: most homeostatic processes never go to zero

Question 126

Internal / External Drives

Answer 126

• Internal: Hypothalamus - e.g. energy and water balance, thermoregulation, stress response, circadian rhythm, defensive behaviors, sex
• External: Amygdala: response to: outside threats, reproductive opportunities, social situations, parental attachmen, afiliation

Question 127

Inernal Homeostasis

Answer 127

• maintain levles of nutrients, water, temperature, electrolyte balance, etc.
• How: autonomic, neuroendocrine or behavioral responses (eat, drink, area restricted searches for food or water)

Question 128

Energy Balance

Answer 128

• homeostatic drive
• ghrelin - to signal hunger
• leptin - to signal you to stop eating (satiation)
• both feedback so could continue to eat if the leptin has not kicked in yet (eat slowly so it catches up)

Question 129

3 Types of Hypothalamic Responses

Answer 129

• Endocrine
• Autonomic
• Behavioral

None are directly related to homeostasis process control but can result in behavioral changes

Question 130

Short & Long Term Allostasis

Answer 130

• Short term allostasis: prepares body for challenges like feeding, fleeing, fighting, sex
• Long term allostasis: harmful (suppression of immune system) - chronic stress responses - it is trying to “right” the balance of some external event (which can go on a long time…ie. chronic stress)

Question 131

Dopamine Pathways (3)

Answer 131

1. Nigrostriatal pathway: substantia nigra (in brainstem) to striatum (in limbic system) - motor control
2. Mesocortical pathway - ventral tegmental (in diencephalon) to prefrontal cortex (planning) - for cognition
3. Mesolimbic pathway: transports dopamine from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus. Associated with addiction and depression. Reward pathway.

Question 132

Primary and Secondary Rewards

Answer 132

• Primary rewards will directly affect homeostasis - food, water, (are primary reinforcers)
• Secondary rewards: can take long time (Van Gogh)

Question 133

Prediction Error

Answer 133

• difference beween what you want (the “reference”) and what actually occurs
• The control system ceases if the prediction error drops to zero (no need to cycle) - happens the more the response is “expected”.
• Based on prior experience and patterns of response, the brain expects (or predicts) what will happen with a certain stimulus or situation.

Question 134

“Needing” and Set Point

Answer 134

• “Needing” happens as a result of a change in the “set point” (i.e. drugs - once effect reduces, the set point changes - happens with repeated use)
• The “set point” is the desired or target value at which you will function optimally or what body thinks is optimal
  *

Question 135

4 Opioid Receptors

Answer 135

• Mu - analgesia and euphoria / amplifier
• Kappa - produce unpleasant reactions (but still reinforcing)
• Delta - same as mu but also antidepressant
• Nociceptin - regulates instinctive / emotional behav.

If you stimulate the Mu and and Delta it makes aversive stimuli seem more pleasant

Question 136

Addictive Substances and Reward Value

Answer 136

• higher than normal reward value
• Also: if bombarding the receptors brain will produce fewer receptors - leads to tolerance (if fewer receptors, less stimulation, less pleasure) - usually endogenous receptors that diminish
• once have tolerance: reward values go down
• Incentive Sensitization: rewarded even by cues

Question 137

Pathalogical Conditioning

Answer 137

• bypassing normal system
• addictive drugs produce a strong positive prediction error signal
• Explanation prediction error signal:
  
  • The dopamine reward response: codes discrepancy between reward and its prediction (‘prediction error’) - unpredicted reward elicits a positive prediction error, a fully predicted reward elicits no response, and the omission of a predicted reward induces a depression (negative pred. error)

Question 138

Nucleus Accumbens and Addiction

Answer 138

• Addictive substances cause nucleus accumbens to release dopamine
• Positive reinforcement: stimulate circuit from nucleus accumbens to ventral tegmental area (PLUS: do NOT need a “positive experience” to experience positive reinforcement)

Question 139

Reward and Dopamine Pathway

Answer 139

• Ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra ⇒nucleus accumbens and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (internal states) reward and pleasure.

Question 140

Face Perception

Answer 140

• fusiform face area in inferotrmporal cortex (ventral visual pathway)
• Temporal Pole / Inferior Temporal Pole
• Amygdala / Insula - recognizing social/emotional cues on the faces
• Insula: produces emot. relevant context for sensory experience
• Damage: prosopagnosia
• re emotion: by looking at others’ facial features we can perceive emotional states in them

Question 141

Superior Temporal Sulcus

Answer 141

• Social-emotional cues - Superior Temporal Sulcus
• Top gyrus of the temporal lobe - processes the cues like gaze, movement of hands, facial expression)
• Disorders: autism, schizophrenia
• (lack some necessary neuroinfrastructure to be able to tell what is happening by looking at others’ faces

Question 142

Theory of Mind

Answer 142

• The ability to perceive others and understand the mental states of others and to recognize that they are different from our own
• First Order: ability to preduct the thoughts of another person (I wonder what she would like…)
• Second Order: understand what a 3rd person would think about the 2nd person’s thoughts
• Sally Anne task - 1st Order and Informational Theory of Mind (specific to humans)
• Before 5 can’t do T.O.M. abilities as not myelinated in frontal lobes

Question 143

Mirror Neurons T.O.M.

Answer 143

• In monkeys saw them active in F5 which is near the Supreior temporal sulcus
• F5 is near Broca which connectcs to Wernicke via and Arcuate Fasciculus so that tract may be involved

Question 144

T.O.M. General Intelligence

Answer 144

• no correlation
• no overlap with brain regions
• so if no T.O.M. ability can still be of general intelligence

Question 145

Disorders T.O.M.

Answer 145

• Autism: abnormalities in brain regions associated with the T.O.M.
• (STS has less grey matter and abnormal patterns of activation during social cognition tasks)
• Schizophrenia: reduced grey matter in medial and lateral prefrontal cortex, temporal poles, anterior insul (spindle neurons there), premotor cortex
• spindle neurons: self-awareness - prerequisite for social cognition (ability to differentiate “self” from others)

Question 146

Pupil Size and Emotional State

Answer 146

• the pupil size of the observer mimics the pupil size of those they are observing
• pupil size is effeced by emotional states
• (change in pupil size: amygdala, anterior cingulate, superior temporal sulcus, insula) - all associated with emotional responses

Question 147

Reward Prediction Error

Answer 147

• The difference between the actual outcome of a situation or action and the expected outcome is the reward prediction error
• A positive RPE indicates the outcome was better than expected while a negative RPE indicates it was worse than expected; the RPE is zero when events transpire according to expectations.