Neuropsychology

Question 1

What is the nervous system?

Answer 1

Collects and responds to information in the environment.
Controls working of different organs and cells including the brain.

Question 2

What are the parts of the central nervous system?

Answer 2

The brain is divided into two halves (hemispheres).
Right hemisphere controls the left side of body and vice versa.
The brain is the centre of conscious awareness and where all decision-making takes place.
The brain stem governs some automatic functions (e.g. heart beat) and reflex responses.

Question 3

What is the peripheral nervous system?

Answer 3

Receives messages from the CNS and sends messages to it.
Messages sent via neurons.

Question 4

What is the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 4

Governs automatic (involuntary) functions.
For example, breathing, heart rate, digestion and the body’s response to stress.

Question 5

What is the somatic nervous system?

Answer 5

Sends information from the brain to muscles, voluntary control of our muscles plus reflex responses.
Takes in information from sensory organs, such as the eyes and the skin.

Question 6

What is homeostasis?

Answer 6

Keeping the body in a constant and balanced internal state.
For example:

Levels of carbon dioxide in the blood controlled through regular breathing.

Body temperature maintained at 37 degrees centigrade by monitoring activity of the body’s organs.

Question 7

What is an automatic system?

Answer 7

We don’t have to consciously direct the ANS.
Breathing, our heart beating, etc., is vital to life so it needs to be involuntary

Question 8

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

Answer 8

Works in opposition to the parasympathetic nervous system.
A state of physiological arousal (e.g. heart beats faster) ready for the fight or flight response.

Question 9

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

Answer 9

The parasympathetic nervous system produces the opposite effect to the sympathetic nervous system.
The rest and digest response which returns the body to normal resting state once the threat has gone.

Question 10

How does the brain detect threats?

Answer 10

The hypothalamus identifies a threatening event (a stressor).
Triggers the sympathetic division of the ANS to act.

Question 11

Why is adrenaline released when the brain detects a threat?

Answer 11

The ANS changes from resting state (parasympathetic) to an aroused (sympathetic) state.
The stress hormone adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands into the bloodstream.

Question 12

What is the fight or flight response?

Answer 12

Immediate and automatic.
Adrenaline targets the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate and breathing.
Also inhibits digestion and increases saliva production.
Prepares the body to confront the threat (fight) or provide energy to run away (flight).

Question 13

What happens to the body once a threat has passed?

Answer 13

Parasympathetic division returns body to normal ‘rest and digest’ state.
Digestion and hunger stimulated.

Question 14

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

Answer 14

Physiological arousal comes first and emotion after.
Two similar theories were proposed and combined.

Question 15

What happens when an event causes physical arousal according to James-Lange?

Answer 15

An event causes physiological arousal in the following way:
Hypothalamus arouses the sympathetic division of the ANS.
Adrenaline is released and creates physiological arousal (heart rate increased, etc., i.e. fight or flight response).

Brain interprets the physiological activity.
Causes emotions, e.g. fear, excitement, love.

Question 16

What happens to emotions if there is no physical change according to the James-Lange theory?

Answer 16

If no physiological changes occur then emotions are not experienced.

Question 17

What are the evaluation points for James-Lange’s theory of emotion?

Answer 17

A strength of the theory is real-life examples.
A fear of public situations (phobia) can develop as a result of the anxiety (emotion) created from falling down in public.
This shows that emotional responses such as fear are a result of physiological arousal like increased heart rate.

A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the Cannon–Bard theory.
We experience some emotions (e.g. embarrassment) at the same time as physiological arousal and not one after the other.
Therefore this theory can explain emotional situations that the James–Lange theory cannot.

A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the two-factor theory.
We need arousal plus social cues to correctly label the emotion we are feeling (Schachter and Singer).
Therefore the James–Lange theory does not explain how a person ‘decides’ what emotion they are experiencing.

Question 18

What are neurons?

Answer 18

Nerve cells send electrical and chemical signals to communicate.
There are 100 billion of them in the human body, with 80% ‘living’ in the brain.

Question 19

What are the types of neurons?

Answer 19

Sensory neurons: Carry messages from PNS to CNS. Long dendrites, Short axons (LS).
Relay neurons: Connect sensory neurons to motor neurons. Short dendrites, Short axons (SS).
Motor neurons: Carry messages from CNS to muscles and glands. Short dendrites, Long axons (SL).
(Think of a way to remember S = LS, R = SS, M = SL)

Question 20

What is the structure of neurons?

Answer 20

Cell body: nucleus containing genetic material (DNA).
Axon: Carries signals from the cell body down the neuron, covered in myelin sheath.
Myelin sheath: Fatty layer acts as insulation and gaps (nodes of Ranvier) speed up signal.
Terminal button: end of axon forming part of the synapse.

Question 21

What is electrical transmission?

Answer 21

Resting state: Inside has a negative charge compared to outside.
When it fires: Changes to a positive charge which causes an action potential.

Question 22

What is the synapse?

Answer 22

Neurons communicate with each other through the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the space between two neurons (the synaptic cleft).

Question 23

What is the release of neurotransmitters?

Answer 23

Neurotransmitters stored in vesicles at terminal buttons of presynaptic neuron.
Electrical signal releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Question 24

What is the reuptake of neurotransmitter?

Answer 24

Neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft attach themselves to the next neuron at postsynaptic receptor sites.
The chemical message is turned back to an electrical impulse.
The neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are broken down by enzymes and reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.

Question 25

What is excitation and inhibition?

Answer 25

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron’s positive charge and make it more likely to fire.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron’s negative charge and make it less likely to fire.

Question 26

What is summation?

Answer 26

Summation occurs if there are more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals from the thousands of signals received from other neurons.
This causes the neuron to fire creating an electrical impulse.

Question 27

What is Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth?

Answer 27

The brain is plastic:
Synaptic connections in the brain become stronger the more they are used.
The brain has the ability to change and develop.

The brain adapts:
The brain changes structure and connections in response to new experiences (= learning).
Any learning – at any age – will do this.

Learning produces an engram:
Learning leaves a trace (engram).
This can be made permanent if we practise and rehearse what we are learning.

Cell assemblies and neuronal growth:
Cell assemblies are groups of neurons that fire together.
The more they fire, the more the synaptic connections grow and strengthen.
Neuronal growth occurs as the cell assemblies rewire to manage new learning.

Question 28

What are the evaluation points of Hebb’s learning theory?

Answer 28

A strength of Hebb’s theory is that it is scientific.
Hebb explained learning in terms of brain function which provided an objective basis for understanding behaviour.
This shows that learning can be studied through brain processes.

A strength of Hebb’s theory is it can be applied to education.
He found that rats raised in stimulating settings were better able to find their way through mazes as adults.
This could be applied to education by creating more stimulating environments to encourage learning.

A weakness with Hebb’s theory is that it reduces learning to a neuronal level.
This means that other levels of understanding are ignored, such as Piaget’s ideas about how accommodation moves learning forwards.
This is an issue as a more complete account of learning would discuss non-biological factors as well.

Question 29

What does the frontal lobe control?

Answer 29

Front of the brain.
Controls thinking, planning and movement.
Contains one language area – Broca’s area.

Question 30

What is the parietal lobe?

Answer 30

Behind the frontal lobe, with somatosensory area at the front.
Sensations are processed, e.g. touch.

Question 31

What is the occipital lobe?

Answer 31

Back of the brain.
Controls vision.

Question 32

What is the temporal lobe and auditory/language area?

Answer 32

Behind the frontal lobe and below occipital lobe.
Auditory area related to speech and hearing.
Includes part of the language area – Wernicke’s area.

Question 33

What is the cerebellum?

Answer 33

Receives information from the spinal cord and the brain.
Main role is movement, coordination and balance. Also involved in attention and language.

Question 34

What is localisation?

Answer 34

Specific brain areas do particular jobs.

Question 35

What happens if you damage the motor area?

Answer 35

The motor area in one hemisphere controls movement on the opposite side of the body. This means that damage ti the left side motor area would lead to problems on the right side of the body.

Question 36

What happens if you damage the somatosensory area?

Answer 36

The most sensitive body parts take up most ‘space’ e.g. sensations for face and hands use over half of the neurons available.
Damage means less ability to feel pain and temperature.

Question 37

What happens if you damage the visual area?

Answer 37

Right visual field of each eye sends information to the visual area in the left hemisphere, and vice versa.
Damage to the visual area in the left hemisphere may cause blindness in the right visual field of both eyes.

Question 38

What happens if you damage the auditory area?

Answer 38

Damage can lead to deafness.

Question 39

What happens if you damage the language area?

Answer 39

Areas controlling language are in the left hemisphere only.
Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulty remembering and forming words.
Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to difficulty understanding and producing language.

Question 40

What was the aim of Penfield’s study?

Answer 40

To investigate patients’ responses when their brain was electrically stimulated.

Question 41

What was the method of Penfield’s study?

Answer 41

Penfield operated on people to treat their severe epilepsy.
His technique meant that a conscious patient’s brain was exposed and areas could be electrically stimulated.
Patients could then report their thoughts and sensations.

Question 42

What are the results of Penfield’s study?

Answer 42

With temporal lobe stimulation, patients recalled experiences or recalled feelings associated with the experiences, including experiences of déjà vu.
The same memory was recalled each time the same area was stimulated.

Question 43

What was the conclusion of Penfield’s study?

Answer 43

Suggests that memories of previous experiences are stored in the temporal lobe.
An associated area stores the personal meaning of the experience. Penfield called this the interpretive cortex.

Question 44

What are the evaluation points of Penfield’s study?

Answer 44

A strength is that Penfield used a very precise method of studying the brain.
He could stimulate the exact same area of the brain repeatedly and patients could report their experiences.
This enabled him to produce an accurate ‘map’ of brain function.

A weakness is that the participants in the study made up an unusual sample.
The patients were suffering from severe epilepsy.
This could mean that any results obtained were unusual and not reflective of people with non-epileptic brains.

A weakness is that Penfield’s later research did not always support his original findings.
In fact only 40 of the 520 patients he studied reported vivid memories when their temporal lobe was stimulated.
This suggests that the interpretive cortex does not always respond in the same way.

Question 45

What is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 45

Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
Aims to create a detailed map of localised functions in the brain.

Question 46

How does the structure and function of the brain relate to behaviour?

Answer 46

Frontal lobe includes the motor area which controls and coordinates movement.
Temporal lobe includes the amygdala which processes emotion and has been linked to aggression.

Question 47

How does the structure and function of the brain relate to cognition?

Answer 47

‘Cognition’ refers to the mental processes of the mind – like memory and perception.
Different types of long-term memories are located in different areas of the brain.

Question 48

How does cognitive neuroscience affect mental illness?

Answer 48

Low serotonin affects thinking (e.g. suicidal thoughts) and behaviour (low mood, depression).

Question 49

What are the effects of a stroke?

Answer 49

When the brain is deprived of oxygen because of disruption to its blood supply, the specific areas affected will die.
The effects may not be permanent if other parts of the brain take over localised functions.

Question 50

What are the effects of neurological damage on behaviour?

Answer 50

Brain damage can lead to ‘aphasia’ – an inability to understand and use language.
Broca’s aphasia leads to problems producing speech.
Wernicke’s aphasia affects understanding of speech.

Question 51

What are CT scans?

Answer 51

Large doughnut-shaped scanner rotates around the person to take lots of X-rays of the brain.
Images are taken from different angles and are combined to build up a detailed picture.

Question 52

What are the strengths of CT scans?

Answer 52

Useful for revealing abnormal structures like tumours.
Quality of the images provided is higher than traditional X-rays.

Question 53

What are the weaknesses of CT scans?

Answer 53

Requires more radiation than X-rays.
Only produces still images.

Question 54

What is a PET scan?

Answer 54

Patient is injected with a radioactive substance like glucose.
Brain activity shown on a computer screen.

Question 55

What are the strengths of PET scans?

Answer 55

Shows brain in action.
Shows localisation of function when person asked to perform a specific task.

Question 56

What are the weaknesses of PET scans?

Answer 56

Expensive.
Images difficult to interpret.
Ethical issues due to the injection of radioactive substance.

Question 57

What is a fMRI scan?

Answer 57

Measure changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain.
Brain activity displayed as 3D images produced on a computer screen.

Question 58

What are the strengths of fMRI scans?

Answer 58

Shows brain in action.
Clear images.
No radiation.

Question 59

What are the weaknesses of fMRI scans?

Answer 59

Expensive.
Person must stay very still.
Time lag between activity and image appearing.

Question 60

What was the aim of Tulving’s study?

Answer 60

To investigate whether episodic memories produced different blood flow from semantic memories.

Question 61

What is the method of Tulving’s study?

Answer 61

Six participants were injected with radioactive gold.
Repeated measures design, each participants did:

Four episodic trials – thought of personal experiences.

Four semantic trials – thought of facts.
Blood flow in the brain was monitored on a PET scan.

Question 62

What were the results of Tulving’s study?

Answer 62

Different blood flow patterns found in three out of six participants.
Semantic memories created a greater concentration of blood flow in the posterior cortex.
Episodic memories created greater flow in the frontal lobe.

Question 63

What was the conclusion of Tulving’s gold study?

Answer 63

Episodic and semantic memories are localised in different parts of the brain.
Memory has a biological basis.

Question 64

What are the evaluation points of Tulving’s study?

Answer 64

A strength is that the study produced scientific evidence.
It used evidence from brain scans that is difficult to fake, unlike other psychological investigations where you can be less sure that participants are behaving genuinely.
This means that Tulving produced unbiased evidence.

A weakness is that the sample was restricted.
Only six participants including Tulving were used and differences in blood flow for episodic and semantic memories were seen in only three participants.
This means the results were inconclusive.

A weakness is that episodic and semantic memories are often very similar.
Memories for personal events also contain facts and knowledge about the world so it is difficult to work out which type of memory is being studied.
This may explain why the evidence from Tulving’s study was inconclusive.