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Psychology Unit 2 > Neuropsychology > Flashcards

Neuropsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the structure of the nervous system.

A

Nervous system = Peripheral nervous system + central nervous system
PNS = Somatic nervous system + autonomic nervous system
ANS = Sympathetic division + parasympathetic division
CNS = Brain + spinal cord

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2
Q

What does the central nervous system consist of?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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3
Q

What does the brain do?

A

All decision making, brain stem controls basic functions

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4
Q

What is the spinal cord and what does it do?

A

A long structure down the spine that carries messages between brain and body

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5
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system do?

A

Receives and sends CNS messages, divides into SNS and ANS

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6
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system do?

A

No control, co-ordinates functions, e.g. digestion.

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7
Q

What does the somatic nervous system do?

A

Have control, controls movement (Not reflexes).

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8
Q

Define nervous system

A

A network of neurons and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body

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9
Q

What is homeostasis and what controls it?

A

ANS responsible. The process through which the body maintains a controlled, balanced state, through controlling vital glands, muscles, and organs. E.g. Carbon dioxide levels controlled through carefully controlled breathing.

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10
Q

Why are some functions controlled by the autonomic nervous system?

A

Because actions like breathing and respiration are too important to be controlled manually.

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11
Q

What is the ANS divided into?

A

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, only one is active at a time.

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12
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

When the body is in a state of physiological arousal preparing the body for fight-or-flight.

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13
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The body is in a state of rest as there is no threat, resets the sympathetic division.

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14
Q

Define fight-or-flight response

A

Immediate physiological response of an animal when in danger. The body becomes physically ready to fight the threat or run from it.

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15
Q

Describe the fight-or-flight relay

A

Brain detects threat (Hypothalamus identifies threatening event and activates the sympathetic division of the ANS).
Adrenaline/epinephrine release (ANS changes from resting state to arousal state which releases epinephrine into the bloodstream).
Fight-or-flight response (Physiological changes occur due to the epinephrine. Pupils dilate, etc.).
Threat passes (ANS changes from state of arousal to resting. Heat rate slow, etc.).

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16
Q

Describe the James-Lange theory of emotion

A

Physiological changes occur first and trigger an emotion.
Event>Arousal>Interpretation>Emotion.

An event activates the hypothalamus, which instructs the sympathetic nervous system of the ANS.
This leads to the release of epinephrine which creates physiological arousal.
Our brain then makes an interpretation on the physiological changes and decides how we feel.
Depending on the interpretation, we feel an emotion.

Example of the theory in use.

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17
Q

Evaluate the James-Lange theory of emotion.

A

Challenged by the Cannon-Bard theory (simultaneous).
Challenges by the two-factor theory (social cues and arousal are the basis of emotion).
Real-life examples.

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18
Q

Describe and evaluate the James-Lange theory of emotion

A

Physiological changes occur first and trigger an emotion.
Event>Arousal>Interpretation>Emotion.

An event activates the hypothalamus, which instructs the sympathetic nervous system of the ANS.
This leads to the release of epinephrine which creates physiological arousal.
Our brain then makes an interpretation on the physiological changes and decides how we feel.
Depending on the interpretation, we feel an emotion.

Example of the theory in use.

Challenged by the Cannon-Bard theory (simultaneous).
Challenges by the two-factor theory (social cues and arousal are the basis of emotion).
Real-life examples.

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19
Q

Define neurons.

A

Cells that send messages through electrical and chemical signals throughout the nervous system. Three types:
Sensory,
Relay,
Motor.

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20
Q

Draw and label a neuron.

A

Dendrites (Carries electrical signals to nearby neurons).

—– Axon (Carries messages).
. Soma (Carries the nucleus).
, Nucleus (Contains DNA).
- Nodes of Ranvier (Speeds up electrical signals).
¬ Myelin sheath (Protects the axon and speeds up electrical signals).
==: Terminal (Communicates to nearby neurons).

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21
Q

What does a sensory neuron do and look like?

A

Carries messages from receptors to CNS.
Long dendrites.
Short axons.
Soma in the middle, detached.

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22
Q

What does a relay neuron do and look like?

A

Carries messages from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
Short dendrites.
Short axons.
Soma in the middle.

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23
Q

What does a motor neuron do and look like?

A

Carries a message from the CNS to effectors (Muscles).
Short dendrites
Long axons.
Soma in axons.

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24
Q

Describe synaptic transmission.

A

When a neuron is in resting state, it is negatively charged.
When a neuron fires, the electrical charge changes momentarily, causing an action potential.
This creates an electrical signal that travels down the axon to be passed to another neuron.

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25
Q

Define synaptic transmission

A

How neurons communicate messages chemically with each other.

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26
Q

Draw and label synaptic transmission

A

|—-~-| . >|——| ,
=|ooo | .>| |xxx
|—-~-| . >|——|
= Pre-synaptic neuron
x Post-synaptic neuron
o Vesicle
~ Re-uptake channel
. Neurotransmitters
Synaptic clef
> Receptor
, Diffusion

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27
Q

Describe synaptic transmission in terms of the post and pre synaptic neuron

A

An electrical signal reaches the end of the pre-synaptic neuron and arrives at the terminal to be passed to the post-synaptic neuron.

The electrical signal causes the vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic clef.

The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic clef to the post-synaptic neuron and fits into a receptor site. E.g. dopamine into a dopamine receptor site.

The neurotransmitter enters the receptor site and causes an electrical message to be sent down the post-synaptic neuron. Remaining neurotransmitters are reabsorbed through the re-uptake channels to be reused.

28
Q

Describe Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth

A

The brain never stops growing; changing physically as new information is learned.
New information creates new connections between neurons in the brain.
The brain can adapt, change, and form new connections as we learn at any age.
Learning leaves an engram (temporary trace on the brain) and can become permanent with repetition.
During learning, cell assemblies (groups of neurons) fire together to create strong synaptic connections between them, this leaves behind a more efficient and effective brain. ‘Neurons that fire together, wire together’.

29
Q

Evaluate Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth

A

Scientific, use of brain scans and factual research to support (Hard to disprove, objective).
Real-life application, practice to improve, every-day use.

30
Q

Describe and evaluate Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth

A

The brain never stops growing; changing physically as new information is learned.
New information creates new connections between neurons in the brain.
The brain can adapt, change, and form new connections as we learn at any age.
Learning leaves an engram (temporary trace on the brain) and can become permanent with repetition.
During learning, cell assemblies (groups of neurons) fire together to create strong synaptic connections between them, this leaves behind a more efficient and effective brain. ‘Neurons that fire together, wire together’.

Scientific, use of brain scans and factual research to support (Hard to disprove, objective).
Real-life application, practice to improve, every-day use.

31
Q

What is the surface layer of the brain called?

A

The cerebral cortex

32
Q

Label the cerebral cortex

A

Front (Anterior) bit = Frontal lobe
Top middle = Parietal lobe
Back (Posterior) bit = Occipital lobe
‘Little’ brain = Cerebellum
Bottom bit = Temporal lobe

33
Q

What is the purpose of the frontal lobe?

A

Controls thinking and planning. Contains the motor area and Broca’s area

34
Q

What is the purpose of the parietal lobe?

A

Contains the somatosensory area

35
Q

What is the purpose of the occipital lobe?

A

Contains the visual area

36
Q

What is the purpose of the cerebellum?

A

Involved in attention and language. Supports movement, co-ordination, and balance.

37
Q

What is the purpose of the temporal lobe?

A

Contains auditory area and Wenicke’s area

38
Q

What is the motor area, what occurs when it is damaged, and where is it located?

A

In the frontal lobe, left hemisphere.
Controls movement contralaterally.
Damage leads to movement issues.

39
Q

What is the somatosensory area and where is it located?

A

Parietal lobe.
Sensory, sensitive areas (hands) take up more, face and hands more than half.
Damage could lead to issues feeling pain and temperature.

40
Q

What is the visual area and where is it located?

A

Occipital lobe.
Eye sends information to it in contralateral fashion.
Damage could lead to blindness.

41
Q

What is the auditory area,what happens if it is damaged, and where is it located?

A

Temporal lobe.
Processes hearing.
Damage could lead to partial/total hearing loss.

42
Q

What is Broca’s area and where is it located?

A

Frontal lobe.
Processes speech.
Damage leads to problems producing speech.

43
Q

What is Wernick’s area and where is it located?

A

Temporal lobe.
Understanding speech.
Damage leads to problems understanding speech.

44
Q

Describe Penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex

A

Aim - To describe the responses of patients from parts of the brain being electrically stimulated

Method - Epileptic patients had different parts of their brain stimulated while conscious and their responses were recorded. The procedure was the Montreal procedure and was used to treat epilepsy. The experiment was over 30 years with >1000 patients.

Results - When the visual area was stimulated, patients could see colours, shadows, and objects.
When the somatosensory area was stimulated, it produced a tingling sensation.
When the temporal lobe was stimulated patients described past experience and the emotions they felt previous.

Conclusion - The interpretive cortex is responsible form memories. Supports the theory of localisation.

45
Q

Define interpretive cortex

A

An area of the temporal lobe where interpretations of memories are stored. Contains our emotions and feelings during certain times.

46
Q

Evaluate Penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex.

A

Benefitted neuroscience.

Contradictory research, only 7% relived experiences.

All participants had severe epilepsy.

47
Q

Describe and evaluate Penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex.

A

Aim - To describe the responses of patients from parts of the brain being electrically stimulated

Method - Epileptic patients had different parts of their brain stimulated while conscious and their responses were recorded. The procedure was the Montreal procedure and was used to treat epilepsy. The experiment was over 30 years with >1000 patients.

Results - When the visual area was stimulated, patients could see colours, shadows, and objects.
When the somatosensory area was stimulated, it produced a tingling sensation.
When the temporal lobe was stimulated patients described past experience and the emotions they felt previous.

Conclusion - The interpretive cortex is responsible form memories. Supports the theory of localisation.

Benefitted neuroscience.

Contradictory research, only 7% relive experiences.

All participants had severe epilepsy.

48
Q

Describe CAT/CT scans

A

Many x-rays taken at different angles as a person lays in a doughnut-shaped scanner.
X-rays put together to form a cohesive image.

49
Q

What are the pros and cons of CAT/CT scans?

A

Reveals brain structure.
Higher quality to normal x-rays.

More radiation than normal x-rays
Still image, no live activity.

50
Q

Describe PET scans

A

Measures metabolic activity in the brain.
Patient injected with a radiotracer (Small amount of radioactive substance, often glucose).
Red/ yellow = lots of activity, blue = little activity.

51
Q

What are the pros and cons of PET scans?

A

Shows brain in action.
Shows localisation.

Expensive.
Hard to interpret.
Radiation, radiotracer.

52
Q

Describe fMRI scans

A

Similar to a PET scan, no radiotracer.
Measures oxygen levels.
When a brain area is active, more blood directed to it.

53
Q

What are the pros and cons of fMRI scans?

A

Shows the brain in action.
No radioactivity.
Very clear images.

Expensive equipment.
Patient must lay still.
5 second delay

54
Q

Describe Tulving’s gold memory study.

A

Aim - See whether thinking about an episodic or semantic memory use different parts of the brain.

Method - Six volunteers, injected with radioactive gold (radiotracer). Participants completed eight tasks. Episodic tasks (Personal experiences), and semantic facts (Historical facts).

Results - 3/6 used different parts for sematic/episodic. Episodic = front, semantic = back.

Conclusion - Episodic and semantic memories separate types of LTM and in differing parts.

55
Q

Evaluate Tulving’s gold memory study.

A

Small sample size.
1/2 had a difference.
Objective measure, factual.

56
Q

Describe and evaluate Tulving’s gold memory study.

A

Aim - See whether thinking about an episodic or semantic memory use different parts of the brain.

Method - Six volunteers, injected with radioactive gold (radiotracer). Participants completed eight tasks. Episodic tasks (Personal experiences), and semantic facts (Historical facts).

Results - 3/6 used different parts for sematic/episodic. Episodic = front, semantic = back.

Conclusion - Episodic and semantic memories separate types of LTM and in differing parts.

Small sample size.
1/2 had a difference.
Objective measure, factual.

57
Q

How does brain structure affect behaviour?

A

The amygdala (Temporal lobe), processes emotions, cause aggressive behaviour.

58
Q

Define cognitive neuroscience

A

The scientific study of how brain structures influence mental processes (Memory, perception).

59
Q

Define neurological damage

A

An event (I.e. illness or injury), damages the neurons in the brain, causes loss of function or change in behaviour.

60
Q

How can brain structure affect mental illness?

A

Low levels of serotonin linked to depression, suicidal thoughts, and low mood.

61
Q

What is the aim of cognitive neuroscience?

A

Create a detailed ‘map’ of the brain, allowing identifications to the areas related to certain aspects/cognition.

62
Q

How can brain structure affect cognition?

A

Different types of memory stored in different places.
Episodic in hippocampus.
Semantic in temporal.

63
Q

How does neurological damage affect motor abilities?

A

Damage to a motor area will affect movement contralaterally.
Can affect fine and complex movement.

64
Q

How can neurological damage affect behaviour?

A

Damaging language areas can result in speech problems. E.g. damage to Broca’s area leads to slow speaking and struggling to find the right words.

65
Q

Cause of a stroke

A

Due to the blood supply to part of the brain being blocked off or a bleed in the brain.

66
Q

Effects of a stroke.

A

Parts of the brain may die, can be permanent, some areas may recover.

67
Q

Define localisation theory and relate to neurological damage.

A

Different parts of the brain control different functions. Neurological damage impact depends on where the damage is.

Psychology Unit 2 (4 decks)

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