neuropsychology Flashcards
stimulus
something that is detected by the sense receptors, which the nervous system will react to
sensory information
information which is picked up by the sense organs of the body and passed on to the central nervous system
CNS
central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord
function of the CNS
coordinates incoming sensory information and responds to it by sending appropriate instructions to the other part of the nervous system.
PNS
peripheral nervous system, the network of nerve fibres connecting the various parts of the body with the central nervous system. made up of the SNS and ANS
SNS
somatic nervous system, network of myelinated sensory and motor neurons that carry sensory info. to, and instructions for movement from, the CNS
it is what allows us to feel and move
ANS
autonomic nervous system, network of unmyelinated nerve fibres running through the body and connecting the senses and internal organs with the CNS
concerned with moods and feelings
sympathetic division
sets off arousal, which can be mild like a feeling of anxiety, or extreme like the fight or flight response. it is activated when we are ‘under threat’
parasympathetic division
allows our body to store up energy when we are not ‘under threat’
fight or flight response
an automatic reaction to threat, stimulated by the ANS and maintained by the endocrine system, which activates the body’s reserves of energy to prepare it for action
our bodies reaction during fight or flight
- adrenaline is released
- increases heart and breathing rate, - - we sweat more to cool our muscles
- pupils dilate
- brain produces natural painkillers: endorphins
parasympathetic to sympathetic division
under normal conditions, the parasympathetic division is in control of the body, storing energy. When a threat is detected the sympathetic division automatically switches on and the body prepares for action
james-lange theory of emotion
said that you experience the physics changes felt by your body first and then interpret these as the emotion. believed that our emotions are really us perceiving physical changes in the body. the brain makes sense of these changes by concluding that we are feeling certain emotions.
quote: ‘we do not weep because we feel sorrow: we feel sorrow because we weep’
evaluation of james-lange theory of emotion
+ real life examples back up the theory e.g phobias and panic disorders
+ his theory promoted a lot of research and recognised the importance of the ANS in emotional experiences
- other researchers have challenged the theory e.g Cannon-Bard claimed that people actually experience emotions at the same time as the related physiological arousal
- other researchers said that for his theory to be correct, there would have to be separate and distinctive patterns of physical arousal, meaning a different pattern for each emotion. there is no research to suggest that this is the case
neuron
a specialised nerve cell which generates and transmits an electrical impulse
the types of neurons in the human nervous system
- motor neuron
- sensory neuron
- relay neuron
sensory neurons
nerve cell that picks up information from sense receptors and carries it to the CNS
e.g tasting food, smelling, hearing are all examples of sensory neuron action
motor neuron
a nerve cell that takes messages from CNS to the muscles to cause them to move
e.g moving your arms, screaming, chewing are all examples of motor neuron action
relay neuron
a nerve cell that passes messages within the CNS
synapse
the small gap between the dendrite of one neuron and the receptor site of the next one
neurotransmitter
a chemical which is released into the synapse by one neuron, and picked up by the next neuron
synaptic transmission def.
the process by which messages are passed from one neuron to another by sending neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap so they can bind with receptors on the next neuron
synaptic transmission detailed process
electrical impulse arrives at the dendrites of the first neuron. the vesicles in the synaptic knobs open and release a special chemical called a neurotransmitter into the synapse. the chemicals are then picked up at receptor sites on the next neuron.
excitation
when a neurotransmitter binds with a receptor on the next neuron, and increases the chance that the next neuron will fire an electrical impulse
inhibition
when a neurotransmitter binds with a receptor on the next neuron, and decreases the chance that the next neuron will fire an electrical impulse
reuptake
a process by which neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the synaptic knob after it has been used during the synaptic transmission
neuronal growth
when a neuron repeatedly excites another neuron leading to a process of growth in one or both of the neurons
hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth
- suggests that when we learn, new connections are created in our brains.
- suggested that if a neuron repeatedly or persistently excites another neuron, neuronal growth takes place, so the synaptic knobs become larger.
- During learning, cell assemblies fire together and if this happens frequently, neural pathways are developed.
- The more we do the task we have learnt, the stronger and more efficient these new neural
pathways become.
evaluation of Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth
+ Hebb’s theory has a scientific basis and although it was developed in the 1950’s, it has been supported by more recent research and advances in neuroscience
+ Hebb’s theory has a number of practical applications including use in education
- Hebb’s theory is reductionist because it attempts to explain the complex area of learning by referring
mainly to just the area of activity in the brain
cerebrum
the largest part of the brain in humans, which consists of two large cerebral hemispheres
frontal lobe
the area of the brain that controls cognitive processes such as thought and memory
parietal lobe
the area of the brain that is responsible for integrating information from other areas to form complex behaviours.
responsibility for all behaviour involving the senses and also language, helps us form words and thoughts
temporal lobe
the area of the brain that is responsible for aspects such as the comprehension and production of spoken language
helps us understand and process what we hear
occipital lobe
the area of the brain where visual information is processed
cerebellum
a small, wrinkled structure at the back of the brain which coordinates motor movement, dexterity, and balance
localised function
a function such as language or vision, which is found in a particular area on the cerebral cortex
localisation of function in the brain
Certain cognitive functions are carried out by specific areas of the brain. Localised functions include sensations, movement, touch, vision, hearing, and language.
- area which controls movement is called the motor area: controls deliberate movement, uses motor neurons to send msgs to muscles
- are behind this is the somatosensory area: deals with touch, more sensitive an area=more somatosensory cortex it involves
motor cortex
the area of the cerebral cortex concerned with movement
somatosensory cortex
area of the cerebral cortex concerned with sensory feeling
visual cortex
area of the cerebral cortex concerned with vision.
in the occipital lobe, receives info from both eyes through the optic nerve.
damage causes blindness
auditory cortex
area of the cerebral cortex concerned with hearing.
in the temporal lobe, receives information from the ears.
damage causes hearing loss
broca’s area
at the base of the left frontal lobe, deals with speech production.
damage to this area means people can understand what is said to them but have problems saying things themselves (motor aphasia)
wernicke’s area
in the temporal lobe, concerned with understanding speech.
damage to this area means people can speak perfectly well, but have a problem understanding what other people are saying to them. (wernicke’s aphasia)
angular gyrus
back of the parietal lobe, deals with reading. receives info about written language from the visual cortex and interprets it as being like speech.
damage to this area means people experience difficulties in reading (acquired dyslexia)
penfield’s interpretive cortex study aim
to investigate the workings of the conscious mind
penfield’s interpretive cortex study design
clinical case studies- investigated brain functions in patients who were undergoing open brain surgery
penfield’s interpretive cortex study method
The doctor applied gentle electrical stimulation to different areas of the cortex and asked the patients
to describe what happened to them
As a control, the doctor sometimes told the patients that he was stimulating the brain but he actually
was not doing so
penfield’s interpretive cortex study results
stimulation of the temporal lobe made one patient report that he could hear a piano playing, while a female patient reported hearing an orchestra playing a particular tune
in earlier research, Penfield had stimulated the visual cortex and people ‘saw’ different things such as colors, shadows, and even balloons floating into the sky.
penfield’s interpretive cortex study conclusion
Penfield concluded that his findings were evidence for the idea of localisation of function and that the
temporal lobe must have a strong role in memories
evaluation of penfield’s interpretive cortex study
+ The medical procedure used was very precise and detailed.
+ Penfield’s work provided a lot of information about localisation of function in the brain and contributed
to the mapping of the brain
- The participants were all having brain surgery because they were severely epileptic. This is a very
unique sample, so they may not have been representative of the wider population - Penfield’s later research did not support his earlier findings
- The findings were different for each participant, so it is hard to draw conclusions
cognitive neuroscience
the study of how cognitive processes connect with brain activity and structure
different brain scans
- CT scans
- PET scans
- fMRI scans
CT scans
which scans the brain by building up a 3D image from a series of X-ray ‘slices’
+ useful for showing damaged areas of the brain, e.g tumours and blood
clots (common cause of strokes).
+ image quality is much better an x-ray.
+ cheaper than PET scan and fMRI’s.
PET scans
locates blood flow in the brain by detecting radioactive tracers. small amount of radioactive chemical is injected into the blood supply.
Brain cells that are active use more blood than ones that are
inactive, so PET scan can identify the more active parts of the brain. Different levels of activity show
up as different colours on the computer screen.
+ scans can show the brain in action. It can be useful at finding reasons for something e.g stroke by using blood flow.
+ able to show if there is a blockage in the blood flow around the brain
- slight risk from radioactivity
fMRI scans
scans the brain by identifying the magnetic activity of water molecules in active brain cells
+ shows which area of the brain is active when a specific task is being performed.
+ Produces a 3D image
+ safe and do not use radiation.
+ quick to carry out and produce very
clear and accurate images
- but are most expensive
- time lag
neurological damage
injury to the nervous system, affects how the neurons work
stroke
sudden interruption to the blood supply in a part of the brain
can produce permanent damage because nerve cells can die due to lack of nutrients
symptoms of strokes
- slurred speech
- dragging muscles on one side of the face
- lessened function of the muscles on one side of the body
post-stroke side effects
- emotional and behavioural changes
- memory problems
- inappropriate behavior in social situations
tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study aim
to find out where activity occurred in the brain when people were experiencing episodic and semantic memories.
tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study method
case study, he injected six volunteers with mildly radioactive gold isotope. They had a type of PET scan that
measures blood flow in different parts of the brain
they lay on a couch with eyes closed and thought about the topic, after 1 minute they were injected.
Each participant’s brain activity was watched while they thought about a episodic memory or semantic
memory
tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study results
The results of three of the participants weren’t used because their results weren’t consistent enough.
The scans of the others did show clear differences in blood flow patterns
episodic memory=more activity and blood flow in the frontal and temporal lobes.
semantic memory=more activity and blood flow in the parietal and occipital lobes
tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study conclusion
concluded that semantic and episodic memories result in different parts of the brain being active
evaluation of tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study
+ ethical as all participants were volunteers and gave consent
+ used scientific methods and produced objective, unbiased findings
+ gold radioactive isotope only had a half-life of 30 secs so risk to the
participants was very small
- Only three participants had consistent results, so the sample size is very small
- not possible to make sure that the participants only thought about what they were asked to, can’t be sure the scan was really measuring a specific type of memory
