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PSY 2120 > Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry > Flashcards

Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Ion Concentrations in neurons

A

A- (amino acid) ions are higher inside the cell
K+ (Potassium) ions higher inside the cell

Cl- (Chloride) ions higher outside the cell
Na+ (Sodium) ions higher outside the cell

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2
Q

Electrochemical Equilibrium

A

exact balance between electrochemical forces
- potential charge across a membrane exactly offsets
the concentration gradient
no net flux across the membrane

none of the ions of physiological importance in a neuron are in electrochemical equilibrium

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3
Q

GABA Distribution and Behavioural Functions

A

ubiquitous throughout CNS (central nervous system)
one of the most common neurotransmitters (NTs)

lack can result in convulsions/death
can treat seizures, anxiety, and insomnia

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4
Q

Ionotropic (Pentamers) GABA Receptors

A

GABAa

GABAc

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5
Q

Metabotropic GABA Receptors

A

GABAb

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6
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh) Distribution and Function

A

Cholinergic system: neurons into midbrain, basal forebrain, frontal cortex and corpus callosum

Active in maintaining attention and waking EEG pattern
Plays role in memory (maintains neuronal excitability)
Death of cholinergic neurons related to Alzheimers

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7
Q

ACh Biosynthesis and Inactivation

A

Acetyl CoA + Choline (from metabolism or diet) = ACh

Acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh

Choline is taken by reuptake proteins in the presynaptic terminal buttons

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8
Q

ACh Ionotropic (Pentamer) Receptors

A

Nicotinic receptors

- affected by Botox and some poison curare

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9
Q

ACh Metabotropic Receptors

A 
Muscarinic receptors (M1 through to M5)
     - affect the function of the ANS (autonomic nervous 
     system)
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10
Q

Serotonin (Indoleamine) Biosynthesis

A

Tryptophan (from diet) + Tryptophan hydroxide =
5-hydroxtryptophan

5-hydroxytryptophan + Aromatic L- amino acid decarboxylase = Serotonin

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11
Q

Temporal Summation

A

summation of ions entering/exiting neuron in close time to one another

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12
Q

7 Steps in Neurotransmitter Action

or

7 Points at which Drugs can Interfere

A
  1. Molecules synthesized
  2. Molecules stored in vesicles
  3. Molecules that leak from vesicles are destroyed by enzymes
  4. Action potential triggers vesicle fusing with membrane and NT release
  5. NT molecules bind with autoreceptors inhibiting further NT release
  6. Released molecules bind with postsynaptic receptors
  7. Released molecules are deactivated by reuptake or enzyme degradation
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13
Q

Receptors

A

membrane proteins that are bound to and activated by neurotransmitters

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14
Q

Antagonist

A

prevents autoreceptors from being turned off

prevents neurotransmitters from binding to autoreceptors

means more release of NTs

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15
Q

Agonists

A

binds to autoreceptors, turning them off and blocking further NT release

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16
Q

Heteroceptor

A

presynaptic receptors activated by NTs different than those released from the same axon terminal

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17
Q

Ionotropic Receptors

A

ligand-gated channels

comprised of multiple protein subunits which form an ion channel pore

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18
Q

G-protein Coupled Receptors

A

alpha splits from beta and theta upon activation

effector protein (in the CNS, enzyme) produces other molecules that can work as ligands on the ion channel

ion channel opens

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19
Q

Second Messenger

A

can open ion channels (with longer effects)

alter operation of non-gated ion channels in a way that alters membrane potential or sensitivity

the other signalling molecules triggered by effector enzyme

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20
Q

G-Protein Pathway

A
  1. NT
  2. Receptor
  3. G-protein
  4. Effector protein
  5. Second messenger
  6. Later effectors
  7. Target action
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21
Q

Gs G-Protein

A
  1. NT (DA)
  2. Effector (Adennylyl Cyclase)
  3. 2nd Messenfer (cAMP- opens ion channels and activates Protein Kinase A)
  4. Kinase (PKA- increases neuronal excitability and metabolic rate, can translocate into nucleus and turn on Transcription Factors)
  5. Transcription Factors - increase protein synthesis (gene transcription)
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22
Q

Gg G-Protein

A
  1. Effector Enzyme (Phospholipase C) produces 2 second messengers

2a. Diacylglycerol
3a. PKC
4a. Increase protein phosphorylation and activates Ca2+ binding proteins

2b. IP3
3b. Ca2+ release
4b. Increase protein phosphorylation and activateds Ca2+ binding proteins

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23
Q

Gi G-Protein

A
  1. Adenylyl Cyclase deactivates
  2. Less cAMP
  3. Less activated PKA
  4. Overall metabolic decrease within neuron
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24
Q

Amino Acids

A

Glutamate and GABA

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25
Q

Monoamines

A

indoleamines and/or catecholamines

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26
Q

Cathecholamines

A

Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine

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27
Q

Indoleamines

A

Serotonin

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28
Q

Ionotropic Receptor Function

A

attached to ion channels
opens ion channel
closes when NT leaves binding site

Influx of ions alters local potential

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29
Q

Metabotropic Receptor Function

A

Separated from ion channels and other proteins
uses G-protein to activate ion channels and effector enzymes
effector enzymes engage a cascade of events that persist after the NT leaves the binding site

can affect local potentials but has other effects including enzyme regulation, gene expression and protein synthesis

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30
Q

Biosynthesis of Catecholamines

A

In cytoplasm: L-tyrosine + tyrosine hydroxylase= L-DOPA

In vesicle: L-DOPA + DOPA decarboxylase = dopamine

dopamine + dopamine beta-hydroxylase = norepinephrine

In cytoplasm (from leakage): norepinephrine + phenylethanolamin n-methyl transferase = epinephrine

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31
Q

Metabotropic Dopamine Receptors

A

D1 receptor family (D1 & D5)

D2 receptor family (D2, D3, D4)

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32
Q

Termination of DA Transmission

A

Reuptake transporters

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) or COMT

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33
Q

Dopamine Distribution and Function

A

Dopaminergic System and Nigrostriatal Pathways
- frontal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and through
body

motor behaviour (can develop Parkinson’s Disease with low dopamine)
reward/pleasure
addictive drugs and behavioural addiction
defecits of attention and schizophrenia are associated with imbalance

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34
Q

NE and E Metabotropic Receptors

A

Metabotropic alpha and beta receptors

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35
Q

Reuptake of NE and E

A

involves MAO and COMT

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36
Q

NE distribution and function

A

Noradrenergic System around brain and cerebellum

maintains emotional tone
decreases with depression
increases with mania
decreased NE activity associated with ADHD and hyperactivity

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37
Q

E distribution

A

adrenaline
thalamus and hypothalamus
medullary epinephrine neurons
spinal cord

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38
Q

Serotonin Receptors

A

all receptors from 5-HT1 through 5-HT7 are metabotropic except 5-HT3

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39
Q

Serotonin Transmission Termination

A

via reuptake and MAO

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40
Q

Serotonin Distribution and Function

A

Serotenergic System
waking EEG pattern
changes related to OCD, tics, and schizophrenia
decreases related to depression
abnormalities in 5-HT neurons related to sleep apnea and SIDS

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41
Q

Neuropeptides

A

synthesized in the cell body
initiate effects by activating G Protein-coupled receptors
catabolized into inactive amino acid fragments by peptides on extracellular surface of the cell membrane

activity depends on their amino acid sequence

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42
Q

Glutamate Biosynthesis and Inactivation

A

synthesized inside the axom terminal from the A.A. glutamine via glutaminase enzyme then released in vesicles

removed via glial reuptake and terminal button reuptake transport proteins

glial cells convert glutamate back to glutamine
- synaptically inactive
- taken back up by pre-synaptic neurons and cycle
begins again

no net gain within the glutamate/glutamine cycle

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43
Q

Nitric Oxide Synthesis and Function

A

gas functioning as an NT
NO synthase converts L-arginine into NO

activates enzyme to form PKG
combines with Citrulline to have other effects
free diffusion across membranes

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44
Q

Difference between NO and other NTs

A

not stored in vesicles
doesn’t bind to receptors
gaseous
free diffusion across membranes

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45
Q

Equilibrium Potential for Na+

ENa+

A

+66mV

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46
Q

EK+

A

-84mV

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47
Q

ECl-

A

-75mV

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48
Q

ECa2+

A

+134mV

49
Q

Features unique to electrically excitable cells

A

response to membrane depolarization
- action potential
wherease a non-excitable cell will simply return to its original resting potential

50
Q

Action Potential

A

the electrical excitability of a neuron

a rapid transient reversal of membrane potential that will travel uninterrupted from hillock to terminal

51
Q

Threshold Potential

A

depolarization of more than +20mV that will result in an action potential

52
Q

Voltage-Gated Ion Channels

A

Open with a change in membrane potential

found mainly on the axon and the hillock

53
Q

Na+ Voltage-gated channels

A

have open, closed, and inactivated settings (closure of inactivation gate)

are triggered at +20mV of depolarization

54
Q

K_ Voltage-Gated Channels

A

triggered at +30 mV (peak potential)

55
Q

Action Potential in Terminal Buttons

A

alters voltage and Ca2+ voltage-gated channels will open
- Ca2+ is necessary to make the vesicles that fust with
the membrane and to open cell pore

56
Q

Neuroglia

A

Astrocytes: blood-brain barrier

Microglia: immune function (phagocytes)

Oligodendrocytes: insulate CNS

Schwann cells: insulate PNS

57
Q

Ligand-gated Ion Channels

A

1/2 of major receptor class on dendrites and soma

ion channel that only operates when the appropriate NT binds with receptor
- will then allow channel to open and selected ions to
enter

depending on the ion channel opened, the neuron will be brought closer to or further from the threshold

58
Q

Post-Synaptic Potential

A

changes in membrane potential of the post-synaptic neuron
graded potentials with the function to activate or inhibit the action potential
some ions let in by ligand-gated or G-Protein coupled receptors travel to the axon hillock
these ions then impact the likelihood of the threshold potential being reached

59
Q

Summation of Inputs

A

a neuron sums all changes in charge that are close in time and space

60
Q

Spatial Summation

A

all signals coming in from different locations on the soma and dendrites are summed

61
Q

Types of NTs

A 
Amino Acids
Modified Amino Acids
Monoamines
Neuropeptides
Gases
62
Q

Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors

A

NMDA
AMPA
Kainate

all of these produce EPSPs

63
Q

Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

A

m-Glu1 through 8

G-protein coupled receptors

64
Q

Criteria that define a Neurotransmitter

A

1) Synthesis
2) Release
3) Receptor Action
4) Inactivation

65
Q

NT Synthesis

A

some NTs are transported from the nucleus to the terminal button, others are made from material imported into the terminal button then packaged into vesicles

66
Q

NT Release

A

NTs are packaged into vesicles that fuse with the membrane of the terminal button to release them in response to an action potential

This process is known as exocytosis

67
Q

NT Receptor Action

A

NT crosses synaptic cleft and binds to a receptor

68
Q

NT Inactivation

A

the NT is either taken up by the terminal or adjacent cells (reuptake), or inactivated in the synaptic cleft

69
Q

Information Flow through Neurons

A

1) Dendrites
2) Cell body
3) Axon
4) Terminal buttons/Axon terminals

70
Q

Plasma Membrane

A 
single membrane that contains transport and receptor proteins
phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic phosphate heads, hydrophobic lipid tails)
selective permeability to maintain intracellular environment
71
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

no membrane

made up of actin filaments, microfilaments, microtubules

maintains cell structure, helps move materials around cell and can (in some species) help move entire cells

72
Q

Mitochondria

A

double membrane; inner layer contains enzymes for ATP production

contains enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions and ATP synthesis

Produces ATP

73
Q

Vacuoles

A

single layer membrane with transporters for select molecules

components vary: pigments, oils, carbohydrates, water, or toxins

function varies: coloration, storage of oils, carbohydrates, water, or toxins

74
Q

Peroxisomes

A

single membrane with transports for select macromolecules

contains enzymes that catalyze oxidation reactions (catalase processes peroxide)

oxidation of fatty acids, ethanol, or other compounds

75
Q

Lysosomes

A

single membrane with proton pumps

components: acid hydrolases (catalyze hydrolysis reactions)

digestion and recycling

76
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

single membrane with enzymes for synthesizing phospholipids

network of branching sacs, with enzymes for lipid synthesis

lipid synthesis

77
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

single membrane with receptors for products of the rough ER

stack of flattened cisternae

protein processing (e.g. glycosylation)

78
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

single membrane with receptors for entry of select proteins

network of branching sacs and ribosomes associated

protein synthesis and processing

79
Q

Ribosomes

A

no membrane

made of a complex of RNA and proteins

synthesizes proteins

80
Q

Nucleus

A

double envelope membrane with openings called nuclear pores

made up of chromosomes, nucleolus and the nuclear lamina

Functions: genetic info, assembly of ribosomal subunits, structured support

81
Q

Resting Membrane Potential

A

neurons have a means of generating constant voltage across their membranes at rest (typically between -40 and -90 mV, usually around -70mV)

82
Q

Forces that direct solute movement

A

A) Concentration Gradient: diffusion until equal amount on both sides of the membrane

B) Voltage Gradient: flow down gradient until equal charge is reached on both sides of a membrane

83
Q

Ionic Electrical Signalling

A

Ions move down their electrochemical gradient if possible

Ions are not equally distributed between intracellular and extracellular fluid because the phospholipid bilayer serves as a barrier

84
Q

Always open Ion Channels

A

transmembrane protein allowing free-flow of specific ions across the phospholipid bilayer

85
Q

Mechanically-gated ion channels

A

open depending on cell pressure (flaccid or turgid)

86
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

increased difference in charge

- e.g. from -70 mV to -90 mV (farther from zero)

87
Q

Depolarization

A

decreasing the difference in charge between two sides of the membrane
- e.g. from -70 mV to -50mV
moving closer to zero than start point

88
Q

Properties of Animal Cells

A

establishing resting membrane potential with dependence on ion gradients and ion permeability

89
Q

Polarized

A

there is a difference in charge on either side of the membrane

90
Q

Hyperpolarization Phase

A

-75 mV

happens because K+ ion channels take a moment to close after normal potential is hit again

91
Q

Refractory Period

A

period during which it is impossible or difficult for another action potential to be initiated

92
Q

Relative Refractory Period

A

period during which it is possible but difficult to initiate another action potential; the hyperpolarization period

this is because there is further to move to reach the threshold of -50 mV

93
Q

Absolute Refractory Period

A

period during which it is impossible for another action potential to begin

can’t open Na+ when it’s already open (depolarization) or when the inactivation gate is in the way (repolarization)

94
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

signal moves more quickly because the axon is myelinated
- the Na+ ions can’t escape until the next Node of
Ranvier
important in extremely long axons

95
Q

Continuous Conduction

A

rate of propagation decreases on the unmyelinated axon because the electrical pattern must repeat over & over at every point on the axon

96
Q

Unidirectional Propagation

A

siggnal repeats itself down the length of a neuron but does not move backwards
because previous sodium gates have inactivation gates
sodium enters cell and diffuses enough to trigger next gates in next section
- signal strength doesn’t change because it’s self
propagating

97
Q

Synapse

A

gap between terminal buttons and dendrites of neurons

98
Q

Pre-synaptic Neuron

A

usually transmits signal

axon terminal on synapse

99
Q

Post-synaptic Neuron

A

dendrites on synapse

has NT receptors (receives signal)

100
Q

Neurons

A

excitable cells that analyze and transmit information
made up of soma, dendrites, axon hillock, axon and axon terminals

may be myelinated
sends electrical messages

101
Q

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials

A

brings membrane potential closer to threshold

e.g. Na+, Ca2+

102
Q

Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potentials

A

caused by hyperpolarizing stimuli
e.g. K+ or Cl-
further from threshold

103
Q

Agonistic Effect

A

promotes/facilitates NT action

104
Q

Antagonistic Effect

A

impairs/inhibits NT action

105
Q

Axodendritic Synapse

A

gap between axon terminal & dendrites

106
Q

Axosomatic Synapse

A

gap between axon terminal & soma

107
Q

Autoreceptor

A

presynaptic receptor activated by NTs released from the same axon terminal

108
Q

Axoaxonic Synapse

A

side neuron releases NTs that affect effectiveness of main neuron

109
Q

Presynaptic Facilitation

A

if an NT in an axoaxonic situation promotes the release of the NT from the main neuron

110
Q

Presynaptic Inhibition

A

if NT from side neuron in an axoaxonic situation prevents or decreases the release of the NT from the presynaptic neuron

111
Q

Metabotropic Receptors

A

large individual proteins that traverse membrane multiple times

indirectly linked with ion channels on the plasma membrane via signal transduction mechanisms

e.g. G-protein coupled receptors

112
Q

Kinases

A

enzymes that alter the functioning of other proteins
can activate transcription factors
long-lasting effects

113
Q

Transcription Factors

A

can alter gene expression by binding to promoters and activating or repressing transcription of a gene

114
Q

Modified Amino Acids

A

ACh (Acetylcholine)

115
Q

Indoleamines

A

Serotonin

116
Q

Neuropeptides

A

endorphins

117
Q

Gases

A

Nitric Oxide

118
Q

Glutamate Distribution and Behavioural Functions

A

Ubiquitous within the CNS
one of the most abundant NTs

affects learning, motor activity, pain sensitivity

119
Q

GABA Biosynthesis and Inactivation

A

Glutamate converte to GABA by GAD and vitamin B6

GABA reuptake into presynaptic cell and into glial cells where it’s converted back to glutamate then glutamine and the cycle starts over

PSY 2120 (4 decks)

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