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Neurology > Neurology Quick Facts Week 3 > Flashcards

Neurology Quick Facts Week 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the boundaries of the frontal lobe of the cortex?

A

The frontal pole to the central sulcus

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2
Q

What are the boundaries of the parietal lobe of the cortex?

A

Central sulcus to imaginary line connecting the preoccipital notch to the parietooccipital sulcus

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3
Q

What are the boundaries of the occipital lobe?

A

Imaginary line connecting the preoccipital notch to the parietooccipital sulcus to the occipital pole

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4
Q

What are the three kinds of cortex based on histology?

A

The allocortex (3 layers), the isocortex (6 layers), and the mesocortex

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5
Q

Based on evolutionary age, what are the three kinds of cortex, oldest to newest?

A

Paleocortex, archicortex, and neocortex (synonymous with the isocortex, which remember, has 6 layers)

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6
Q

Describe the 6 layers of the isocortex (AKA: neocortex) you would see if you traveled from the pia deep into the brain.

A

Layer 1 = molecular layer; not very many cells, but those that are there are GABAergic interneurons

Layers 2 & 3 = superficial pyramidal cell layer; contain mostly pyramidal cells

Layer 4 = granular layer

Layer 5 = deep pyramidal cell layer, where the largest pyramidal cells are found

Layer 6 = polymorphic layer

Further classification:

Layers 1 -3 = supragranular
Layer 4 = granular
Layers 5 - 6 = subgranular

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7
Q

There are tons of cells in the cortex, but the overarching classification of all cells is either?

A

Pyramidal vs. Non-pyramidal

Spiny vs. Aspiny

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8
Q

Describe the features of a pyramidal cell

A

Single dominant apical dendrite with a basal rosette of dendrites and an axon that leaves the soma

Cells send their axons into the deep white matter, giving off collaterals along the way

Projection neurons of the cortex

Can also send projections locally to other cortical and sub-cortical areas

Excitatory cells; dendrites have dendritic spines

Glutamate or aspartate are their primary neurotransmitter

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9
Q

Describe the features of a non-pyramidal cell

A

Non-pyramidal cells can be multipolar or bipolar

Most are GABAergic interneurons

Most GABAergic cells are aspiny.

An aside: In layer 4 of the primary sensory cortex, there is a non-pyramidal, local circuit cell/interneuron that uses glutamate as its transmitter. It is called the spiny stellate cell, and it has dendritic spines.

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10
Q

What part of a dendrite holds the excitatory synapse?

A

The dendritic spine

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11
Q

What is a spiny stellate cell?

A

It’s a non-pyramidal cell, but it uses glutamate as its neurotransmitter - a feature reminiscent of pyramidal cells

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12
Q

Describe basket cells and where they’re located

A

Non-pyramidal

Vary in size

Inhibitory/GABAergic

They are multipolar

The axons have basket-shaped terminations that surround somas of pyramidal cells in order to inhibit the final summing point for synaptic input

Located in layer 2/3 and 5

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13
Q

Describe chandelier cells

A

Non-pyramidal

Inhibitory/GABAergic

Has terminal cassettes that selectively contact the basal dendrite or more often, the axon initial segment of the pyramidal cell in order to inhibit the initiation of action potentials in the initial segment/1st Node of Ranvier

Looks like a chandelier. Did NOT see that coming.

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14
Q

Describe bipolar cells

Describe bi-tufted cells

A

Non-pyramidal

Axons organized vertically

Innervate more distal dendrites of pyramidal neurons when compared to chandelier or basket cells

Bipolar cells are GABAergic and inhibitory, with its termination on distal branches of apical and basal dendrites

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15
Q

What provides the dominant input for cortical neurons?

A

Other cortical neurons

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16
Q

What is the main extrinsic input to the cortex?

What is another less primary extrinsic input?

A

Inputs from the thalamus

Brainstem nuclei, which serve modulatory functions

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17
Q

What are two types of extrinsic thalamic input?

A

Specific and non-specific afferents

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18
Q

What is extrinsic specific thalamic input?

Where is it centered?

A

It is from thalamic nuclei that project afferents to a single cortical area and typically concerns a single modality.

E.g.: VPL to somatosensory cortex or VL to motor cortex

It is centered on Layer 4

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19
Q

What is extrinsic non-specific thalamic input?

A

It is afferents from thalamic nuclei that integrate information from many sources.

Important for general brain states and arousal.

E.g.: Intralaminar and midline thalamic nuclei

Projection is mainly to Layer 1

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20
Q

How do all extrinsic inputs enter the cortex?

A

All afferents enter from deep white matter and travel vertically.

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21
Q

Which cells are the principal projection neurons of the cortex?

A

Pyramidal cells are the main dudes sending efferents.

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22
Q

Pyramidal cells associated mostly with cortico-cortical connections are located in which layers of the cortex?

What two types of pyramidal cells are mainly responsible for the efferents of these layers?

A

Layers II and III

Association fibers project ipsilaterally. Target = associational cortical area

Callosal fibers project to contralateral, but equivalent areas of the cortex via the corpus callosum. Target = commissural cortical area

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23
Q

In which layer are the main output neurons of the cortex located?

What are they called?

A

Layer V

Pyramidal neurons

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24
Q

Cells residing in which layer project to the thalamus?

A

Layer VI

Overall scheme of projections:

thalamus –> cortex; cortex –> thalamus

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25
What forms the basis for the thalamocortical rhythm?
The communication below: thalamus --> cortex; cortex --> thalamus
26
Layer 5 can be subdivided into 5a and 5b based on the targeted areas for projection. Describe where cells from each layer tend to project.
Layer 5a: Thinner neurons with less robust apical dendrite that project to the contralateral cortex and the striatum Layer 5b: Deeper layer of 5; more robust neurons that tend to project beyond the telencephalon to places like the spinal cord, tectum, pons, brainstem.
27
Are there more pyramidal or non-pyramidal cells in the cortex?
Way way way more pyramidal
28
Are pyramidal cells excitatory or non-excitatory? What are non-pyramidal cells?
Pyramidal cells are excitatory and use excitatory amino acids. They project. Non-pyramidal cells are inhibitory, using GABA as their neurotransmitter. They are local circuit, or interneurons.
29
Most inputs to a given pyramidal cell are from ___________
Other pyramidal cells; that is to say, excitatory input goes from one pyramidal cell to another.
30
What are cortical columns?
These are repeating modules that form the cortex
31
What are mini columns, microcolumn/hyper columns, and macrocolumns?
Mini column: a type of cortical column in which all cells encode similar features Microcolumn/hypercolumn: Several mini columns allied together for a particular function Macrocolumn: Basic functional unit of the cortex.
32
Describe how information from the thalamus eventually travels throughout all layers of the cortex
Specific thalamic input to excitatory spiny stellate cells in Layer 4 project their axons to excitatory Layer 2 and 3 pyramidal cells. Layer 2 and 3 cells project to excitatory pyramidal cells in layer 5 and 6; these cells are the excitatory output of the column. Specifically, tons of Layer 5 project to other local columns, as well as to other areas of the cortex and sub-cortex.
33
Are inputs and outputs in the cortex lateral or vertical?
They are vertical.
34
All pyramidal cells in a mini column are _________ of a single precursor cell in the ____________ of the embryonic cerebral vesicles
ancestors; ventricular zone
35
Are interneurons derived from the ventricular zone of cerebral vesicles?
No. They derive from cells from the medial ganglionic eminence, then migrate to the neocortex
36
What is the appearance of layers in an association, or homotypic cortex?
Obvious
37
In cortical areas where individual layers are either enhanced or reduced, what is the appearance of the layers in these heterotypic cortices?
Less obvious
38
Describe the primary motor cortex in terms of the appearance of its layers
Layer V if very large, and Layer IV is almost absent, so the motor cortex is known as the agranular cortex. It is heterotypic.
39
Describe the primary sensory cortex in terms of the appearance of its layers
Layer IV is especially large, but Layer V relatively small. Thus, the primary sensory cortex is known as the granular cortex. It is heterotypic.
40
In which Brodmann area is the primary motor cortex located?
Brodmann area 4
41
In which Brodmann area is the primary somatosensory cortex located?
Areas 3, 1, 2
42
In which Brodmann area is the primary visual cortex located?
Area 17
43
In which Brodmann area is the primary auditory cortex located?
Areas 41 and 42, also known as Heschl's gyrus
44
For each sensory modality in the cortex, there is a ______________ that receives input from the corresponding specific nucleus of the _________. Give an example
primary cortical area; thalamus E.g.: Lateral geniculate for vision
45
What occurs in the primary cortical area of each sensory modality?
Initial processing of the particular perception the modality controls (i.e. initial processing of what you see)
46
Where do initial and further processing occur in sensory modalities of the cortex?
Initial processing is in the primary cortical area, and further processing is in unimodal association areas
47
What occurs at heteromodal association areas?
Different modalities are combined (like the sight and smell of a certain place)
48
In which Brodmann area is the premotor cortex?
Area 6 It is also an example of a unimodal association area
49
In which Brodmann area does somatesthesias occur
Areas 5 and 7 These are unimodal areas for somatesthesias
50
The relative ______ of the cortical area concerned with a given part of the body corresponds to how _________
size; fine a degree of motor control there is or ability to discriminate between points on the body surface
51
Which parts of the body have the largest amount of cortical area associated with them?
Face and fingers
52
When thalamic inputs convey somatosensory info to the primary somatosensory cortex in areas 3a, 3b, 1, 2, this is called ______ processing of information
serial
53
Which Brodmann areas receive inputs from afferents in muscle and deep tissue?
Areas (anterior) 3a and 2
54
which Brodmann areas receive inputs from afferents from cutaneous areas?
Areas (posterior) 3b and 1
55
To which Brodmann areas do Areas 3, 1, and 2 project after parallel processing has occurred among them?
Areas 5 and 7 - the unimodal somatosensory association cortex, which info about different sub-modalities is combined.
56
To where does the unimodal somatosensory association cortex project?
To the heteromodal areas in the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortex
57
Is most of the human neocortex comprised of association cortex?
Yes.
58
Which thalamic nucleus projects to the temporal association cortex?
The lateral posterior nucleus
59
Which thalamic nucleus projects to the parietal and occipital association cortices?
Pulvinar nucleus
60
Which thalamic nucleus projects to the prefrontal association cortex?
Medial dorsal
61
What does the parietal association cortex control?
Attention to the internal and external environment
62
What occurs if the parietal cortex is damaged in person's dominant hemisphere (usually the left side)? How about the non-dominant?
Language disorders Sensory neglect, which occurs when patients ignore sensory experience on the half of the body contralateral to the lesion.
63
What is the temporal association cortex responsible for?
Recognition and identification
64
What occurs with a lesion to the occipitotemporal gyrus of the temporal lobe?
Deficits in recognition of objects and people
65
What comprises the largest component of the cortex?
The prefrontal association cortex
66
What is the prefrontal association cortex responsible for?
Personality and sense of self Integrates all types of information to allow us to plan and execute behaviours Allows us to choose among actions - restraint, initiative, or order?
67
What two areas comprise the prefrontal association cortex?
The orbitofrontal and dorsolateral components
68
What is the orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex responsible for?
Aggression and emotions. It is part of the limbic system
69
What is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex responsible for?
Working memory and planning behaviours
70
What does a lesion to the prefrontal cortex cause?
Personality changes, lack of initiative, deficits of planning, loss of inhibitions or restraint.
71
What circuits is the limbic system composed of?
A circuit concerned with control of emotion (amygdala has major role) and a circuit concerned with cognitive function (hippocampus has major role)
72
Where are the amygdaloid nuclei located?
anterior temporal lobe, just anterior to the hippocampal formation
73
What are the three main groups of amygdala nuclei, and what do they do?
Corticomedial group: olfactory Central nucleus: principal output nucleus; important for autonomic control (blood pressure, heart rate), arousal, and subjective experience. Basolateral group: principal input nucleus; associated with neocortex and thalamus
74
What nuclei does the corticomedial group of the amygdala contain?
The anterior, medial, and cortical nuclei
75
What does the central nucleus of the amygdala have?
A close relationship with the striatum and a high density of dopamine-containing axons. The principal cell type is the medium spiny GABAergic neuron
76
What nuclei are in the basolateral group of the amygdala?
They are the basal, lateral, and accessory basal nuclei. This is the largest nucleus in humans. The principal cells are glutaminergic pyramidal cells
77
What are the major inputs and outputs to the corticomedial nuclei of the amygdala?
The main inputs are from the olfactory bulb. The main output is the hypothalamus via the stria terminalis, back to the olfactory bulb.
78
What are the major inputs and outputs to the central nucleus of the amygdala?
The major inputs are from the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala and from the hypothalamus. Principal output is to the brainstem and hypothalamus to regulate autonomic systems
79
What are the major inputs and outputs to the basolateral nuclei?
The major inputs come from many areas of association cortex and olfactory cortex. The main output is to the central nucleus of the amygdala, but outputs also go to the hypothalamus, cortex, thalamus, hippocampal formation, entorhinal cortex, and subiculum
80
What does a unilateral lesion to the amygdala cause?
Lesions disturb emotional and/or social behaviour
81
What does a bilateral amygdala lesion to the amygdala cause?
hypersexuality, tame/placid, lack of normal fear to threatening objects, and oral-oriented (putting everything in their mouth). Feeding disorders develop, but the type depends on where the lesion is. If it is the basolateral nuclei, then the animals eat all of the time (hyperphagia). Central nucleus = do not eat (hypophagia)
82
What does bilateral loss of the anterior temporal lobe cause?
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome, a disease in which patients are hyper sexual, overly tame/placid, have hyperphagia, are hyperactive, and express psychic blindness (do not recognize emotional content of facial expressions)
83
What does Urbech-Wiethe cause? What are the symptoms?
The disease causes calcification of neural tissue, in some cases bilaterally in the anterior temporal lobes. Patients cannot recognize what facial expressions mean (body language and such). This is especially true for fear, of which the amygdala is thought to be a primary executor. It also regulate other emotional behaviors.
84
For what is the basolateral amygdala important?
the emotional component of learning and memories It integrates emotional behavior and sensory experience.
85
Where is the hippocampal formation located?
It is a telencephalic structure located within the temporal lobe; it is posterior and inferior to the amygdala
86
The _______ is the collected axons of hippocampal pyramidal cell. These fibers collect and form the __________, which in turn becomes the ____________, which is the main white matter to and from the hippocampal formation.
alveus fimbria fornix
87
The hippocampal formation includes several major components. What are they?
The subiculum, the Cornus Ammoni (CA) fields (considered the hippocampus proper), and the dentate gyrus
88
What are two major input pathways to the hippocampal formation?
The perforant pathway from the lateral entorhinal cortex and the alvear pathway from the medial entorhinal cortex
89
What are the principal cells in the entorhinal cortex, the subiculum, and the CA fields?
Glutaminergic, excitatory, pyramidal cells. Recall that they will have dendritic spines.
90
What is the principal cell type in the dentate gyrus?
small, glutaminergic, excitatory granule cells.
91
The CA fields and subiculum are considered to be 3-layered allocortex. What are the three layers?
The molecular layer (cell poor), the pyramidal layer (cell bodies of the principal pyramidal neurons), and the polymorphic layer (contains interneurons)
92
The dentate gyrus is a 3-layered allocortex. What are the three layers?
The molecular layer (cell poor), the granule layer (cell bodies of granule cells), and the polymorphic layer (contains interneurons)
93
What is the main input to the dentate gyrus?
It is from the entorhinal cortex
94
What is the main output from the dentate gyrus?
CA3
95
Describe the trisynaptic circuit of the hippocampus
The entorhinal cortex pyramidal cells project to the dentate gyrus via the perforate path. The dentate gyrus granule cells then project to CA3 via mossy fibers. CA3 pyramidal cells project to CA1 via the Schaeffer collaterals.. Finally, CA1 projects to the septal nuclei and the contralateral hippocampus via commissural fibers.
96
Describe the alvear path
The entorhinal cortex pyramidal cells project directly to CA1, and CA1 projects to septal nuclei and the contralateral hippocampus.
97
Almost all outputs from the hippocampal formation are via the ____________
subiculum, which projects widely throughout the cortex
98
The entorhinal cortex (gateway to the hippocampal formation) receives inputs from widespread areas of the ____________
cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, which means that it receives highly processed information about most of our experience.
99
Which hippocampal pyramidal neurons are highly susceptible to epilepsy and ischemia?
hippocampal pyramidal neurons in general are, but those of CA1 are especially so
100
What are the hippocampal formation and entorhinal cortex highly susceptible to what? Why?
Seizures, because of the prevalence of excitatory neurons and their interconnections. But, GABAergic inhibitory interneurons do help regulate excitability in those areas, just as they do in the neocortex.
101
Alzheimer's disease seems to have a particular predilection for what kind of cells?
Hippocampal pyramidal cells; their loss may lead to loss of memory, a hallmark of the disease.
102
Learning, memory, forgetting, and position in the external environment are jobs for the?
Hippocampal formation
103
Place cells are located where? What do they do?
They are located in the hippocampal formation and are associated with knowing one's place in the external environment (spatial learning and memories)
104
What is a declarative memory?
It is material available to the conscious mind that can be encoded in language. The hippocampal formation is essential for forming and retrieving declarative memories
105
What is implicit memory?
This material is not available to the conscious mind - in other words, it's procedural and can be done without conscious effort (riding a bike).
106
The ________ is considered essential for emotional content of memory
amygdala
107
The _________ and ______ are crucial for implicit memory formation
basal ganglia and cerebellum
108
Immediate memory
Lasts a few seconds
109
Short-term memory
Lasts seconds to minutes
110
Working memory
Subset of short term memory that allows us to keep things in mind to complete a task, like dialing a phone number
111
Long term memory
Last days, weeks, or entire lives. Stored in the neocortex
112
Damage to the _______, ____, and _____ structures result in memory deficits
hippocampal formation, midline thalamic structures, and hypothalamic structures (like mammillary bodies and fornix)

Neurology (3 decks)

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