Neurology Flashcards
What are the 3 layers of the meninges?
Dura - outer
Arachnoid- keeps CSF in contact with brain
Pia- on brain surface, present between vessels and neurons
Where does the circle of Willis lie?
Subarachnoid - between arachnoid and pia
What myelinates axons in the brain?
Oligodendrocytes
What myelinates axons in the rest of the body?
Schwann cells
What are 3 functions of the frontal lobe?
Voluntary movement on opposite side of body
Dominant hemisphere controls speech and writing (right handed = left dominant)
Reasoning
Memory
Intellectual functioning
What is the primary function of the parietal lobe?
Receives and interprets sensations (pain, touch, size, shape and proprioception)
What is the primary function of the temporal lobe?
Understand spoken word (wernickes) and sounds
What are the 2 primary functions of the occipital lobe?
Understanding visual images
Understanding meaning of written words
Where is CSF produced?
Ependymal cells in choroid plexuses of lateral ventricles
Where is CSF absorbed?
Arachnoid granulations in superior sagittal sinus
Where do sympathetic nerves arise from?
Thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord
What receptors are present at Presynaptic sympathetic neurones?
Nicotinic
What receptors are present at postsynaptic sympathetic neurones?
Adriinergic receptors
What neurotransmitter is used at presynaptic sympathetic neurones?
Acetylcholine
What neurotransmitter is used at postsynaptic sympathetic neurones?
Noradrenaline
What neurotransmitter is used at presynaptic parasympathetic neurones?
Acetylcholine
What neurotransmitter is used at postsynaptic parasympathetic neurones?
Acetylcholine
What receptors are present at presynaptic sympathetic neurones?
Nicotinic
What receptors are present at postsynaptic parasympathetic neurones?
Muscarinic
What are 3 functions of the sympathetic system?
Inc HR
Increases force of contraction
Vasoconstriction
BronchoDILATION
Reduces gastric motility
Male ejaculation
What are 3 functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Decreases heart rate
Decrease force of contraction
Vasodilation
BronchoCONSTRICTION
Increases gastric motility
INCREASED gastric secretions
Male erection
Define dermatome
Area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve
Define myotome
Volume of muscle supplied by a single spinal nerve
Define transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
Brief episode (5-15 mins) of neurological dysfunction due to ischaemia without infarction
What are the risk factors of TIA?
Age
Smoking
HTN
Past TIA
Heart disease
AF
What are 3 causes of TIA?
Atherthromboembolism from carotid (MC)
Small vessel occlusion
Valve disease
Hyperviscosity
What 2 regions of circulation can be affected by TIA?
90%= anterior circulation (carotid artery)
10% = posterior circulation (vestibulobasilar artery)
What are the symptoms of an anterior/carotid TIA?
Weak/ numb contralateral leg
Amaurosis fugax
Dysphasia
Hemiparesis (one sided weakness)
Define amourosis fugax
Sudden transient loss of vision in one eye
“Curtain comes down vertically into one field of vision”
What causes amaurosis fugax?
Temporary reduction in blood flow to the retinal,ciliary or ophthalmic artery causing temporary retinal hypoxia
What is amaurosis fugax a sign of?
Imminent stroke
What are the symptoms of a posterior TIA?
Diplopia (double vision)
Vertigo
Vomiting
Choking
Ataxia (no control of body movement)
Transient global amnesia
Can be unconscious
What is the differential diagnosis of TIA?
Stroke
- impossible to differentiate until after
- TIA usually resolves, stroke often doesn’t
- stroke infarct
How is TIA diagnosed?
Usually clinical
Diffusion weighted MRI (1st line)
Carotid artery doppler ultrasound to find issues
Bloods: polycythaemia, vasculitis ect
How is stroke risk predicted after TIA?
ABCD2
What ABCD2 score strongly predicts a stroke?
6<
Greater than 4 should be seen within 24 hrs
How is TIA treated acutely?
Immediate 300mg aspirin
AF = anticoag
How is TIA treated long term?
Aspirin + Clopidogrel (P2Y12 inhibitor) 75mg
Long term statin
Control CV factors
What is an example of a statin?
Simvastatin
What are the 2 types of stroke?
Haemorrhagic
Ischaemic
Define stroke
Rapid neurological disturbance lasting >24 hours caused by infarction
Who is most commonly affected by strokes?
BAME
Men
Increases with age
What type are most strokes?
Ischemic
Define ischaemic stroke
Arterial embolism occludes a vessel resulting in infarction
Define haemorrhagic stroke
Rupture of blood vessel leading to infarction
What are 3 risk factors of strokes?
Increased age
HTN
Smoking
Past TIA
DM
Heart disease
What are 3 causes of ischaemic stroke?
Thromboembolism
Cardioembolism
Hyperviscosity
Hypoperfusion (blood loss)
What are the symptoms of a stroke in the ACA region?
Leg weakness
Gait apraxia (loss of function in lower limbs)
Incontinence
Drowsiness
What are the symptoms of a stroke in the MCA region?
Contralateral arm and leg weakness+ sensory loss
Aphasia/ Dysphasia
Facial droop
Homonymous hemianopia
What is the MC stroke region presentation?
MCA
What are the symptoms of a stroke in the PCA territory?
Contralateral homonymous hemianopia (visual field loss in same halves of both eyes)
Cortical blindness
Visual agnosia
Prosopagnosia (cant see faces)
Unilateral headache
What are the symptoms of a stroke in the posterior (vestibulobasilar) region?
Very catastrophic
Facial paralysis
Quadriplegia
Altered consciousness
What are 2 differential diagnoses of stroke?
Hypoglycaemia
Intracranial lesion
Syncope
Define lacunar stroke
Infarct of small arteries supplying the midbrain (internal capsule, basal ganglia ect)
What are the symptoms of a lacunar stroke?
Pure sensory loss
Ataxic hemiparesis
Unilateral weakness
How is stroke diagnosed?
- Immediate non contrast CT (identifies haemorrhagic)
GS: MRI
ECG for AF or MI
Bloods: thrombocytopenia ect
How is stroke classified?
Bamford classification
How is ischemic stroke treated?
Immediate 300mg aspirin
Thrombolysis with altepase (within 4.5 hours)
After:
Aspirin for 2 weeks
Clopidogrel
How is haemmoragic stroke treated?
Neurosurgery immediately
Stop anticoags
Mannitol (diuretic) to decrease pressure
What is a specific sign of stroke?
Pronator drift
- arm on affected side will pronate with palm down when patient asked to lift arms to ceiling
What are 4 types of haemmorhage?
Intracerebral
Subarachnoid
Extradural
Subdural
Define subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
Spontaneous bleeding into subarachnoid space (between arachnoid and pia)
What is the MC cause of SAH rupture?
Berry aneurysm
Also
Trauma
AV malformation
Idiopathic
What age is commonly affected by SAH?
35-65
Define berry aneurysm
Rupture at the junction of circle of Willis
What is the MC site of a berry aneurysm?
Anterior communicating/ ACA junction
What are the risk factors of SAH?
HTN
FHx
Polycystic kidneys
Connective tissue disorders
Coarctation of aorta
What is the mortality rate of SAH?
50% <
The rest usually left with significant disability
What are the symptoms of SAH?
Sudden onset of severe occipital headache ‘thunderclap”
May have sentinel headache (early sign before)
Meningitis signs
Decreased consciousness
Fixed dilated pupils
What are 2 differential diagnoses of SAH?
Migraine
Meningitis
Intracerebral bleeds
How is SAH diagnosed?
Head NC-CT (GS)- star shaped
Lumbar puncture if CT doesn’t confirm
- xanthochromia confirms
What does a star shape in the middle of the brain on CT indicate?
SAH
How is SAH treated?
Refer to neurosurgeon - endovascular coiling
Nimodipine (CCB)
What are 2 complications of SAH?
Re bleeding
Hydrocephalus
Cerebral ischaemia
Define Subdural haemorrhage (SDH)
Accumulation of blood between the arachnoid and dura mater following the rupture of a bridging vein between cortex and venous sinus
What are the risk factors of SDH?
Small brain: babies, alcoholics, dementia
Trauma- can be long ago or very minor
Anticoag
What are 3 causes of SDH?
Deceleration trauma
Shaken babies/abuse
Brain atrophy
Outline the pathophysiology of SDH
Bleeding from bridging veins into SD space -> clot -> later clot autolyses (draws water and expands) -> increase in ICP -> shifting of midline structures -> hernia and death
What are the symptoms of SDH?
Long interval between injury and symptoms and gradual onset
Decreased/ fluctuating consciousness
Drowsiness
Behaviour change
Signs of increased ICP: Cushing triad
How is SDH diagnosed?
NC-CT head - crescent shaped/banana
Acute = hyperdense, chronic = hypodense
Midline shift
What is banana shape on CT indicative of?
SDH
suBdural = Banana
What is Cushings triad? (signs of ICP)
Bradycardia
Irregular breathing
hypertension
How is SDH treated?
Surgery: burr hole and craniotomy
IV mannitol to decrease ICP
Define extradural haemorrhage (EDH)
Collection of blood between the dura mater and bone usually due to head injury
What is the MC cause of EDH?
Rupture of middle meningeal artery after fracture of the temporal bone
What are the risk factors of EDH?
Young adult - decrease risk when age increases
Trauma
Why is EDH uncommon in older people?
Dura more adhered to skull
What are the symptoms of EDH?
Head injury -> initial loss of consciousness and drowsiness -> lucid interval -> rapid deterioration
“I feel fine”
Late onset = severe headache, nausea, vomiting, decreased GCS, death (resp arrest) ect
What are the differential diagnoses of EDH?
Epilepsy
CO poisoning
Meningitis
How is EDH diagnosed?
NC-CT head: shows lemon shape
Confined to cranial sutures
May show skull fracture
Midline shift
What is a lemon shape on CT head indicative of?
EDH
How is EDH treated?
Urgent surgery to evacuate clot and ligate vessel
ABCDE
IV mannitol
What causes Intracerebral haemorrhage?
Spontaneous due to ischemic infarction or aneurysm rupture
What are the signs of Intracerebral haemorrhage on CT?
Acute/fresh bleed is hyperdense on CT (bright white)
Define meningitis
Inflammation of the meninges
What is the MC cause of meningitis in pregnancy?
Listeria monocytogenes
What are 2 causes of meningitis in neonates?
Group B haemolytic strep (colonises vagina)
- S.agalactiae
E. Coli
What are 3 causes of meningitis in children?
N. Meningitidis
Strep. Pneumoniae
Haemophilius influenzae
What are 3 causes of meningitis in elderly people/immunocompromised?
Cytomegalovirus
Cryptococcus neoformans
TB
HIV
HSV
What is fungal cause of meningitis?
Cryptococcus neoformans
What type of bacteria is n. Meningitidis?
Gram negative diplodoccus
What is the MC cause of meningitis?
Viral (Enteroviruses) eg
HSV2
Varicella
Measles
What is the sign of N. Meningitidis?
Non blanching purpuric rash
What is the appearance of S. pneumoniae?
Gram positive diplococcus in chains
What vaccine is available against N.Meningitidis?
Men B+C
Men ACWY
What vaccine is available against s. Pneumoniae?
PCV
What are the risk factors of meningitis?
Intrathecal drug administration (spinal canal)
Age extremes
Pregnancy
Crowding
Endocarditis
What are the general symptoms of meningitis?
Headache
Neck stiffness
Fever
What are the symptoms of bacterial meningitis?
Sudden onset
Triad of normal symptoms
Papillodema
Non blanching purpuric rash
Altered mental state
Positive signs
Nerve palsies (III)
What are the 2 signs of meningitis?
Kernig’s sign
Brudzinski’s sign
What is Kernig’s sign?
Can’t extend knee without pain when hip is flexed
What is Brudzinski’s sign?
Knees and hips automatically flex when neck is flexed
What are the symptoms of viral meningitis?
Benign and self limiting
Headache can last for a few months
How is meningitis diagnosed?
Blood tests before LP
LP and CSF analysis
What is present in bacterial meningitis CSF?
Cloudy yellow colour
Neutrophilia and polymorphs
Low glucose
Increased opening pressure
What are the CSF findings in viral meningitis?
Clear CSF
Lymphocytes
Normal glucose
Normal opening pressure
What are the CSF findings of TB meningitis?
Ziehl Neelson stain
Low glucose
High opening pressure
How is bacterial meningitis treated in the community?
Immediate IV or IM benzylpenicillin
How is bacterial meningitis treated in hospital?
IV cefotaxime or ceftriaxone
+ amoxicillin for neonates and elderly
+ vancomycin for travellers
Also dexamethasone to reduce cerebral oedema
What is given to those in contact with people with meningitis?
Ciprofloxacin (all ages and pregnant)
Or
Rifampicin (NOT FOR PREGNANCY)
How is viral meningitis treated?
Usually fine
Acyclovir for HSV
What are 2 differential diagnoses of meningitis?
Subarachnoid haemorrhage
Migraine
What are 3 complications of meningitis?
Hearing loss
DIC (septicaemia)
Waterhouse freidrechsen syndrome (adrenal haemorrhage -> adrenal insufficiency)
Define encephalitis
Infection and inflammation of the brain parenchyma
What is the MC cause of encephalitis/
HSV-1
Also: varicella, HIV, EBV, toxioplasmosis (cats)
What are the risk factors of encephalitis?
Extremes of age
Immunocompromised
What are the symptoms of encephalitis?
Triad: fever, headache, altered mental state
Features of viral infection
Seizures
Whole brain affected = problems of consciousness
How is encephalitis diagnosed?
MRI
CSF shows elevated lymphocytes
EEG shows sharp and slow waves
What lobe is MC affected by encephalitis?
Temporal
How is encephalitis treated?
IV aciclovir
Mostly supportive
If seizures give primidone
What are the causes of seizures?
VITAMIN DE
Vascular
Infection
Trauma
Autoimmune
Metabolic
Idiopathic (EPILEPSY)
Neoplasms
Dementia and drugs
Eclampsia
Define epilepsy
Recurrent tendency to have seizures (>2 >24 hours apart) with no apparent cause
Define seizure
Spontaneous, uncontrolled, intermittent abnormal electrical activity in the brain
What are the qualities of ictus/ epileptic seizures?
Eyes open
Synchronous movements
Can occur in sleep
What are the risk factors of epilepsy?
> 20 or 60<
FHx
Premature birth
Alzheimer’s
Outline the pathophysiology of epilepsy
Normal balance between GABA (-) and glutamate (+) shifts towards glutamate
- Glutamate is more excitatory
Define prodrome
Nonspecific behavioural symptoms that can occur in the hours/days before a seizure
Define aura
More specific sensory disturbances (bad feeling, strange smells ect) that can occur before a seizure
What are the 2 classifications of seizure?
Generalised
Partial/focal
Are most seizures generalised or focal?
Focal
Define generalised seizure
Simultaneous onset of electrical discharge throughout the whole cortex, and ALWAYS is associated with loss of consciousness/awareness
How long do epileptic seizures usually last?
30-120 seconds
Define focal seizure
Electrical discharge is limited to one area of the brain, but can later become generalised
Outline the process of an epileptic seizure
Prodrome -> aura -> ictal event/seizure -> post ictal period
Define post ictal period
The period after a seizure
What are the symptoms in a post ictal period?
Headache
Confusion
Todd’s paralysis (temporary paralysis and muscle weakness)
Dysphasia
Amnesia
What symptom of a post ictal period is specific to epilepsy?
Sore tongue
What are 5 types of generalised seizure?
Tonic-clonic/grand-mal
Absence
Myoclonic
Tonic
Atonic/akinetic
What are 5 features of tonic-clonic seizures?
Often no aura
Loss of consciousness
Tonic phase: rigid and stiff limbs (fall)
Clonic phase: muscles jerking
Period of drowsiness, confusion, coma after
What are 4 features of absence seizures?
Usually occurs in children
Cease of activity, stares and pales for a few seconds
Amnesia of attack
3-Hz spike on ECG
What is the feature of myoclonic seizures?
Sudden isolated jerk of limb, face or trunk
- May suddenly fall
What is the feature of tonic seizures?
Sudden intense stiffening usually with grunt/cry
- NOT followed by jerking
What is the feature of atonic seizures?
Sudden loss of muscle tone (floppy) and cessation of movement causing a fall
What are 3 types of focal seizures?
Simple partial seizure
Complex partial seizure
Partial seizure with secondary generalisation
Define simple focal seizure
No LOC or memory and awareness is unimpaired, no post-ictal symptoms
Define complex focal seizure
Affecting awareness at some point, and patient is unaware and there is a post ictal period
Define focal seizure with secondary generalisation
Focal seizures spread widely, causing a secondary generalised seizure
2/3 of patients have this
Where do most complex focal seizures arise from?
Temporal lobe
What are the features of a simple focal seizure?
Isolated limb jerking
Head turning away from side of seizure
Todds paralysis
What are the features of a complex focal seizure?
Hallucinations
Lip smacking
Automatism
What are most secondary generalised seizures?
Tonic-clonic
What are the features of temporal lobe seizures?
Aura- deja but, hallucinations, fear ect
Anxiety o out of body experiences
Dysphasia
Post-ictal period
What are the symptoms of a frontal lobe seizure?
Motor features such as posturing or peddling
Jacksonian march- marches up or down homunculus starting in face or thumb
Post-ictal Todd’s palsy (of limbs involved in seizure)
What are the symptoms of a parietal lobe seizure?
Sensory disturbances- tingling or numbness
What are the symptoms of occipital lobe seizures?
Visual phenomenons - spots, flashes ect
What are features that differentiate epilepsy from syncope?
Tongue biting
Head turning
Muscle pain
LOC
Cyanosis
Post-ictal symptoms
How is epilepsy diagnosed?
Must have at least 2 seizures 24+ hours apart
ECG- not diagnostic
MRI with hippocampus imaging
CT head to check for lesion
FBC to check for metabolic causes
Define status epilepticus
Complication of epilepsy
Seizure >5 mins OR more than one seizure within 5 mins
What are the symptoms of status epilepticus?
Convulsive: jerking, grunting, drooling
Non-convulsive: no jerking, confusion, unable to speak
How is status epilepticus treated?
IV or rectal benzodiazepines
- lorazepam or buccal midazolam
Second line = phenytoin
How are tonic-clonic seizures treated?
Men + non-childbearing women: sodium valporate
Childbearing women: lamotrigine/levetiracetam
How are tonic/atonic seizures treated?
Men: sodium valoprate
Women: lamotrigine
How are myoclonic seizures treated?
Men: sodium valoprate
Women: levetiracetam
How are absence seizures treated?
Ethosuximide
2nd is the usual
How are focal seizures treated?
Lamotrigine or levetiracetam
- Carbamazepine, oxcarbaepine, zonisamide
What are 2 side effects of sodium valoprate?
Teratogenic
Hair loss and growing back curly
Weight gain
Oedema
What is a side effect of carbamazepine?
Agranulocytosis
Aplastic cytosis
What are the side effects of ethosuximide?
Night terror and rash
What are 2 side effects of lamotrigine?
Steve Johnson syndome
Leukopeni
How does sodium valoprate work?
Increases GABA
How does carbamazepine work?
Increases refractory period of sodium channels
How does lamotrigine work?
Na channel blocker
What are some surgical treatments for epilepsy if drugs are ineffective?
Surgical resection for hippocampal sclerosis or tumour
Vagal nerve stimulation
What are the causes of status epilepticus?
Abruptly stopping treatment
Alcohol abuse
Poor therapy compliance
When can epilepsy patients drive?
After they have been free from daytime seizures for a year
Define spina cord compression/myelopathy
Compression of the spinal cord resulting in upper neurone signs and symptoms specific to the site of compression
What are 2 causes of spinal cord compression?
Vertebral body neoplasms
Secondary malignancy from lungs, breast, prostate ect
What are 2 consequences of spinal cord compression?
Disc herniation- centre moves out of the outer part
Disc prolapse- nucleus pulposus moves and can create a bulge in the disc
What are the symptoms of spinal cord compression?
Progressive leg weakness with UMN signs
Sensory loss below the level of the lesion
Can have sphincter involvement
How is spinal cord compression diagnosed?
MRI- GS and done AS SOON AS POSSIBLE
CXR to see malignancy
How is spinal cord compression treated?
Malignancy = IV dexamethasone
Neurosurgery
- microdisectomy (remove herniated tissue)
- laminectomy (remove lamina/spongy tissue)
Define sciatica
S1 nerve root compression
Define cauda equina syndrome
Compression below conus medullaris/ cauda equina - distal to termination of spinal cord at L1/L2
What is the MC cause of cauda equina?
Lumbar disc herniation (occurs in around 2%)
Spondylolistesis, tumours, abscesses, trauma
What are the symptoms of cauda equina?
Leg weakness and LMN signs
Saddle anaesthesia- loss of sensation when wiping/perineum
Bladder and bowel dysfunction
Variable areflexic flaccid leg weakness
How is cauda equina diagnosed?
MRI to localise lesion
How is cauda equina treated?
Refer to neurosurgeon asap for surgical decompression
Can give surgical spine sensation, spinal fusion/ fixation
What are 3 causes of cranial nerve lesions?
Tumour
MS
Trauma
Aneurysm
Infection
What are the symptoms of CN 3/ Oculomotor palsy?
Ptosis- dropping eyelids
Fixed dilated pupil
Eye down and out
Double vision
What are 3 causes of CN 3 palsy?
Raised ICP
Diabetes
HTN
Giant cell arteritis
What are the symptoms of CN 4/ trochlear nerve palsy?
Head tilt to unaffected side to correct lack of superior oblique
Diplopia when looking down
What causes CN 4 palsy?
Trauma to orbit only
What are the signs of CN 6 palsy?
Eyes will be adducted as it innervates lateral rectus
What are the symptoms of CN 5/ trigeminal palsy?
Jaw deviates to side of lesion
Loss of corneal reflex
What are the symptoms of CN VII/ facial nerve palsy?
NOT FOREHEAD SPARING (that would be UMN)
Facial droop and weakness
Ocular dryness
Decreased taste
Incomplete eye closure
Ear pain
Difficulty chewing
What are the causes of CN VII palsy?
Bell’s palsy- may be due to inflammation and oedema of facial nerve due to viral infection or autoimmune
Middle ear infection
Inflammation of the parotid gland
Define trigeminal neuralgia
Episodes of acute severe facial nerve pain of the trigeminal nerve
How is Bell’s palsy treated?
Supportive
Can give Prednisolone
Eye care: lubricants, sunglasses ect
What are the causes of trigeminal neuralgia?
Vascular compression (MC)
Compression by other lesions
MS
Idiopathic
What are the symptoms of trigeminal neuralgia?
Short lived episodes of electric shock pain in the distribution of the trigeminal nerve
Can be triggered by cold air or eating
How is trigeminal neuralgia diagnosed?
CT/MRI to find lesion
Clinical diagnosis: short bursts of pain (>3 with unilateral facial pain)
What type of drug is carbamazepine?
Anticonvulsant
How is trigeminal neuralgia treated?
Carbamazepine
2. Gabapentin/lamotrigine
Surgery = micro vascular decompression
What are the symptoms of CN VIII/ vesibulocochlear palsy?
Hearing impairment
Vertigo and lack of balance
What are the causes of CN 8 palsy?
Close to bone so- bone fracture
Ear infections
Tumours in internal acoustic meatus
What are the symptoms of CN 9/10 lesion?
Impaired gag reflex
Swallowing issues
Vocal issues
What is the cause of CN 9/10 lesions?
Jugular foramen lesion
What are the symptoms of CN 11 lesion?
Can’t shrug shoulders
Can’t turn head against resistance
What are the symptoms of CN 12 palsy?
Tongue deviates towards the side of the lesion
Define myasthenia gravis (MG)
Autoimmune condition against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the NMJ that gets better with rest and worse with activity
What age does MG present in women?
30-40
What age does MG usually present in males?
60
What is MG in women associated with?
Autoimmune disease
- pernicious anaemia (B12)
- SLE
- RA
- Thymic hyperplasia
What is MG associated with in men?
Thymic tumour / thymic hyperplasia
What can cause transient MG?
D-Penicillamine treatment for Wilson’s disease
Outline the pathophysiology of MG
Anti-AChR antibodies made -> block NMJ -> prevent ACh activation -> activate complement system -> damages NMJ
In exercise more receptors used -> more blocked -> increased muscle weakness
What are the symptoms of MG?
Muscle weakness worse in exercise and better at rest
Eye issues: ptosis, piplopia, myasthenic snarl when smiling
Jaw and speech fatiguability
Chewing and swallowing difficulties (bulbar)
Tendon reflexes can fatigue
What are 2 differential diagnoses of MG?
Lambert-Eaton myasthetic syndrome
MS
Hyperthyroidism
GBS
How is MG diagnosed?
Anti AChR + Anti MuSK (muscle specific tyrosine kinase)
Clinical diagnosis
EMG (electromyography) and NCS (nerve conduction studies)
CT of thymus
Tensilon test
What is a Tensilon test?
Used to diagnose MG
IV edrophonium (anti-cholinesterase) given and muscle power will increase
What are the side effects of a Tensilon test?
Cardiac arrhythmia
How is MG treated?
Anti-cholinesterase pyridostigmine so ACh stays in NMJ
Immunosupression- Prednisolone
Thymectomy
What is an example of an anti-cholinesterase?
neostigmine
pyridostigmine
What are the side effects of anti-cholinesterases?
DUMBELLS
Diarrhoea
Urination
Miosis
Bradycardia
Emesis
Lacrimation
Lethargy
Salivation
What is a complication of MG?
Myasthenic crisis
What are the features of myasthenic crisis?
Weakness of respiratory muscles in a relapse
How is myasthenic crisis treated?
Plasma exchange
IV IG
What is monitored in MG?
FVC for myasthenic crisis
What 2 drugs can worsen MG?
Beta blockers
Antibiotics
What is Lamber-Eaton syndrome associated with?
Small cell lung cancer
Define Lamber-Eaton syndrome
Autoantibodies against presynaptic voltage gated calcium channels preventing the release of ACh
What are the symptoms of Lamber-Eaton syndrome?
Very similar to MG but
Gets better with exercise and not associated with thymus
Symptoms start in extremities+ head and neck
How is Lambert-Eaton syndrome treated?
Treat malignancy
Amifadiprine - potassium channel blocker
Acetylcholineesterase inhibitor- pyridostigmine
Consider IVIG and plasma exchange
What are 2 causes of sciatica?
Spinal: IV Disc hernia
Non-spinal: piriformis syndrome
What are the symptoms of sciatica?
Pain from buttock down lateral leg -> pinky toe
Weak plantar flex ion
Absent ankle jerk
How is sciatica diagnosed?
Can’t straighten straight leg without pain
MRI
Define syncope
Temporary loss of consciousness due to disrupted blood flow to the brain, often causing a fall
What are the other terms for syncope?
Vasovagal episodes
Fainting
Outline the pathophysiology of syncope
Strong stimulus in vagus nerve -> parasympathetic NS activated -> counteracts sympathetic NS -> brain blood vessel vasodilates -> cerebral circulation BP drops -> hypoperfusion of brain
What are the symptoms of syncope?
Prodromal- before the attack: hot/clammy, light headed, dizzy, blurred vision
Sudde loss of consciousness and fall to ground
Unconscious until blood flow returns
May be twitching, shaking or convulsion
What are 3 primary causes of syncope?
Missed meals
Dehydration
Extended standing in warm environment
In response to a stimuli eg. Blood
What are 3 secondary causes of syncope?
Hypoglycaemia
Anaemia
Infection
Anaphylaxis
Arrhythmia
Cardiomyopathy
How is syncope investigated?
Full history and exam
ECG- arrhythmia or long QT
Bloods- anaemia, electrolytes, blood glucose
How is syncope treated?
Basically avoid causes
When experiencing Prodromal symptoms, sit or lie down
What are 4 limb neuropathies/mononeuropathies?
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Wrist drop
Claw hand
Foot drop
Define carpal tunnel syndrome
Pressure and compression on the median nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist
What are the risk factors of carpal tunnel syndrome?
Female
Hypothyroidism
DM
Pregnancy
Obesity
RI
Acromegaly
What are the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome?
Gradual onset of symptoms
Aching pain in hand
Tingling in thumb, index, middle, and 1/2 the ring finger and palm
Relieved by dangling hand over edge
May have sensory loss and thenar degradation
How is carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosed?
Phalen’s test
Tinel’s test
Electromyography (EMG)
What is Phalen’s test?
Patient can only maximally flex wrist for 1 minute without pain (back of palms against each other)
What is Tinel’s test?
Tapping on nerve at wrist causes tingling
How is carpal tunnel syndrome treated?
Wrist splint at night
Local steroid injection
Surgical decompression
What muscles are supplied by the median nerve?
LOAF
2 lumbricals
Opponents pollicis
Abductor pollicis brevis
Flexor pollicis brevis
What causes wrist drop?
Radial nerve palsy
How is wrist drop treated?
Splint
Analgesia
What causes claw hand?
Ulnar nerve palsy
What causes foot drop?
Peroneal nerve compression
What are 2 causes of foot drop?
Knee injury compression
Muscle or nerve disorders
Brain and spinal cord disorders
Bone lesions
What are the symptoms of foot drop?
Foot dragging when lifting
Steeppage gait- one thigh raised higher than other
Numbness of top of foot and toes
Bi/unilateral
How is foot drop diagnosed?
Clinical
Nerve conduction studies
X-ray, USS, CT, MRI
How is foot drop treated?
Braces or split
Physical therapy
Nerve stimulation
Surgery
Who is affected by giant cell arteritis?
~50 year old Caucasian women
What are the symptoms of giant cell arteritis?
Unilateral tender scalp
Intermittent jaw claudication
Worse case = amaurosis fugax
How is giant cell arteritis diagnosed?
Temporal artery biopsy
- Big part as skip lesions
Shows granulomatous non cesating inflammation of intima and media with skip lesions
Normocytic normochromic anaemia
How is giant cell arteritis treated?
Corticosteroids - Prednisolone
Amaurosis fugax = IV methylprednisolone
Define multiple sclerosis
Chronic autoimmune T cell mediated demyelination of the CNS
What cells are affected by MS?
Oligodendroyctes
Who is commonly affected by MS?
Females> males
20-40 years
White people
What are the risk factors of MS?
Female
FHx
EBV
Low vitamin D
Genetics
What gene increases the risk of MS?
HLA-DR2
Outline the pathophysiology of MS
Molecular mimicry
Initial infection -> cell recognition -> after infection myelin recognised as antigen -> cytokine release and antibody formation
What are the 3 types of MS?
Relapsing + remitting
Primary progressive
Secondary progressive
What is the MC type of MS?
Relapsing + remitting
Describe relapsing + remitting MS
Symptoms occur in attacks, then periods of good health/remission, then relapse again
Describe primary progressive MS
Gradually worsening disability without relapse or remission
Describe secondary progressive MS
Follows on from relapsing and remitting
Symptoms then gradually worsen
How many patients with relapsing and remitting MS will develop secondary progressive MS?
75% within 35 years after onset
What is Charcot’s neurological triad (MS)?
Scanning or staccato speech
Intention tremor
Nystagmus
What are the optic symptoms of MS?
Unilateral optic neuritis -> loss of colour discrimination and eye can change colour
Inter nuclear opthalmoplegia (cant adduct right eye when looking to left)
Vision worse when hot
What are the sensory symptoms of MS?
Uhtoff’s phenomenon (transient neurological dysfunction when temperature increased)
Lhermitte’s sign (electric shocks going down the cervical spine radiating down the limbs)
What are the motor symptoms of MS?
Spasticity
Ataxia
UMN signs
How is MS diagnosed?
MRI: lesions in the periventricular regions and discrete white matter abnormalities
CSF: oligoclonal bands of IgG and increased lymphocytes
Evoked potential test
What criteria is used to diagnose MS?
McDonald’s criteria
What is McDonald’s criteria for MS?
2 or more attacks at separate times and affecting different parts of the CNS
How is MS treated acutely?
3 days IV methylprednisolone
What is the prophylaxis for MS?
Beta interferons
Biologicals
How is tremor in MS treated?
Clonazepam
How is fatigue in MS treated?
Modafinil
How is spacisity in MS treated?
Baclofen
How is Incontenence in MS treated?
Anticholinergics
- Eg. Oxybutin
Define Guillain Barre syndrome
Acute, inflammatory, autoimmune demyelinating polyneuropathy characterised by ascending weakness
What is the MC acute polyneuropathy?
GBS
What are the causes of GBS?
GI or upper respiratory tract infection
Campylobacter jejuni
CMV
Mycoplasma
Zoster
HIV
EBV
Outline the pathophysiology of GBS
Molecular mimicry
Infection and response -> antigens similar to Schwann cells so -> autoimmune destruction of Schwann cells -> demyelination -> acute polyneuropathy
What are the symptoms of GBS?
1-3 weeks post infection symmetrical ascending muscle weakness + paralysis
Loss of reflexes
Some have respiratory failure
Often reduced sensation
What are 2 differential diagnoses of GBS?
Sarcoidosis
MG
Stroke
B12 deficiency
Lyme disease
How is GBS diagnosed?
Nerve conduction tests + EMG
Lumbar puncture: raised protein and normal WCC
Anti GM1
How is GBS treated?
IV immunoglobulin
Plasma exchange
What should be monitored in GBS?
FVC to check for respiratory failure
What is the leading cause of death in GBS?
PE
Define Parkinson’s
Degenerative movement disorder caused by dopamine neuron degeneration in the substantia niagra
What is the Parkinson’s triad?
Rigidity
Bradykinesia
Resting tremor
What are the risk factors of Parkinson’s?
Male
Increased age
FHx
Non-smoker!
What are the causes of Parkinson’s?
Idiopathic
Drug induced
Environmental factors
Parkinson genes
What are the features of a parkinsonian tremor?
Asymmetrical
Pill rolling of thumb
Exacerbated by rest
What are the features of parkinsonian rigidity?
Cogwheel rigidity
Increased tone in limbs and trunk
Can cause pain and problems when turning in bed
What are the features of gait in Parkinson’s?
Reduced asymmetrical arm swing
Narrow gait
Stooped posture and small steps
Shuffling and may drag feet
What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s?
Parkinsonian triad
Onset is ALWAYS ASYMMETRICAL
Changes in gait
Smaller handwriting
Expressionless face
Loss of sense of smell
Outline the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s
Dopamine depletion from substantia niagra due to Lewy body deposition -> decreased activity of direct pathway -> increased activity of indirect pathway -> thalamic inhibition
How is Parkinson’s diagnosed?
Clinically mainly
Can confirm by response to levodopa
How is Parkinson’s treated?
GS: levodopa + decarboxylase inhibitors
Dopamine agonist
MAO-B inhibitors
COMT inhibitors
How does levodopa work?
Precursor to dopamine so can cross BBB so it can be converted to dopamine in brain and used
How do decarboxylase inhibitors work?
Prevent peripheral conversion of L-dopa to dopamine so reduces peripheral side effects and maximise dose that crosses BBB
What are 2 decarboxylase inhibitors?
Co-careldopa
Co- beneldopa
What are the side effects of levodopa?
Postural HTN
Psychosis
Arrhythmia
What is a dopamine agonist used to treat Parkinson’s?
pramipexole
ropinirole
How do MAO-B inhibitors work?
Inhibit MAO-B enzymes that break down dopamine, causing a reduction in dopamine breakdown
What are 2 MAO-B inhibitors?
Selegiline
Rasagiline
What are the side effects of dopamine agonists?
Compulsive behaviour
Drowsiness
Hallucinating
How do COMT inhibitors work?
Inhibits COMT which breaks down dopamine
What are 2 COMT inhibitors?
Entacapone
Tolcapone
What is Parkinson’s plus?
Parkinsonism + early autonomic clinical features
What are 2 Parkinson plus syndromes?
Multiple system atrophy- postural HTN, incontenence
Lewy body dementia
Corticobasal degeneration- spontaneous rigidity
Progressive supranuclear palsy- vertical gaze palsy
What are the complications of Parkinson’s?
Depression
Wearing off medication
Define Huntingtons disease
Autosomal dominant neurodegenerative movement disorder characterised by lack of GABA
Define chorea
Continuous flow of jerky, semi purposeful movements flitting from one part of the body to another
CEASES IN SLEEP
What gene is mutated in Huntington’s?
CAG trinucleotide repeat disorder on chromosome 4 in HTT gene
What can happen with trinucleotide repeat disorders?
Anticipation
Successive generations have more repeats causing earlier onset and increased severity
What degenerates in Huntington’s?
Degeneration of caudate nucleus and putamen
- Lack of input nuclei
- Increased size of frontal lateral horns
How many gene repeats of CAG will guarantee Huntington’s?
> 40
What occurs in the brain in Huntington’s?
Cholinergic and GABAnergic neuron degeneration in basal ganglia
How many repeats of CAG is normal?
<35
Outline the pathophysiology of Huntington’s chorea
Progressive cerebral atrophy -> loss of GABA-nergic and cholinergic neurons-> excessive thalamic stimulation -> chorea and excessive movements
What are some non-Huntington’s causes of chorea?
Sydenham’s chorea (rheumatic fever)
Wilsons
SLE
What are the symptoms of Huntington’s?
Prodromal phase of mild psychotic and behavioural symptoms
Chorea
Dysarthria (unclear speech)
Behaviour changes: agression, addiction, apathy, self neglect
Depression
Death within 15 years
How is Huntingtons diagnosed?
Mainly clinical
Genetic testing shows >35 repeats
MRI shows caudate nucleus atrophy and increased size of frontal horns
What is the young onset variant of Huntington’s?
Westphal variant
How is Huntington’s treated?
Counselling- genetic, helping them prepare
Dopamine depleting agent for chorea
What is a dopamine depleting agent and how does it work?
Tetrabenazine- irreversibly blocks VMAT
Define dementia
Neurodegenerative condition characterised by a decrease in cognition (memory, judgement and language)
What is the MC cause of dementia?
Alzheimer’s
What dementia is MC in women?
Alzheimer’s
What dementia is MC in men?
Vascular and mixed
What are the risk factors of Alzheimer’s?
Increased age
Fhx
Downs syndome
Caucasian
Outline the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s
Beta amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles accumulate -> neuronal death, brain atrophy, decreased ACh
What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s?
4As
Amnesia (recent memories lost first)
Aphasia( speech muddled)
Agosia (recognition problems)
Apraxia (cant carry out tasks despite normal motor function)
What gene mutation increases the risk of Alzheimer’s?
Apoprotein E allele E4
How is Alzheimer’s treated?
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil/rivastigmine)
- stops breakdown of ACh
Memantine
What is an example of a Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor?
Donepezil
Rivastigmine
What causes frontotemporal dementia?
Pick inclusion bodies (silver aggregated Tau proteins) can be seen post mortem
What are the features of frontptemporal dementia?
Younger onset (45-64)
Personality changes and social conduct problems (frontal)
Speech and language affected (temporal)
What causes Lewy body dementia?
Alpha-synuclein aggregates form Lewy body deposition in neurons in the substantia niagra and cortex
What is Lewy body dementia associated with?
Parkinson’s
What are the symptoms of Lewy body dementia?
Visual hallucinations
Problems with REM sleep
Cognitive fluctuations
Prominent executive dysfunction
Parkinsonism
What is Parkinsonian dementia?
Parkinson’s THEN Lewy body dementia
How is Lewy body dementia treated?
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
Mematine
How does vascular dementia progress?
Stepwise
Define vascular dementia
Cognitive impairment caused by cerebovascular disease
What are the risk factors of vascular dementia?
Stroke or TIA
Hypertension
DM
Smoking
Obesity
CHD
What are the symptoms of vascular dementia?
Stepwise deterioration
Attention defects
Misplacing items
Forgetting past/current events
How is dementia diagnosed?
MMSE (mini mental state examination)
Brain MRI shows cortical atrophy
How is dementia prevented?
Stop smoking, good diet, exercise, low alcohol
Engage in >6 leisurely activities
Mental activity
What MMSE is normal?
> 25/30
What MMSE indicates severe imparement?
<17/30
What are the 2 categories of headache?
Primary- no underlying cause
Secondary- underlying cause of the headache
What are 3 causes of secondary headache?
GCA
Meningitis
Medication overuse
Trauma
SAH
Infection
What are 4 primary headaches?
Migraine
Cluster
Tension
Trigeminal neuralgia
Define migraine
Recurrent throbbing headache often preceded by an aura and associated with N+V and vision changes
Who is migraine MC in?
Women <40
What are the triggers of a migraine?
CHOCOLATE
Chocolate
Hangovers
Orgasms
Cheese
Oral contraceptives
Lie ins
Alcohol
Tumult/loud noise
Exercise
What are the symptoms of a migraine?
Severe throbbing headache
Nausea, photophobia, phonophobia
May be preceded by aura
Can last 4-72 hours
How is migraine diagnosed?
Usually clinical:
Aura
N+V OR photophobia and 2 of
Unilateral headache, worsened by daily activity, pulsating, moderate to severe pain, motion sensitivity
Exclude clinical causes (CT/MRI)
How are migraines acutely treated?
NSAIDs + sumatriptan
Give anti emetic
What is an example of an anti emetic?
Prochlorperazine
How are migraines prevented?
Propanolol
Anti convulsant: topiramate
When is topiramate CI?
Pregnancy
Reduces effects of oral contraceptives
What are the MC chronic daily recurrent headache?
Tension headache
What is the MC primary headache?
Tension headache
What are the causes/triggers of tension headaches?
Stress
Sleep deprivation
Bad posture
Hunger
Eye strain
Noise
What are the symptoms of tension headache?
Bilateral
“Band like” sensation around head
Non pulsatile
May have scalp muscle tenderness
Pressure behind eyes
How are tension headaches treated?
Lifestyle changes
Stress relief: massage or acupuncture
Aspirin+ NSAIDs or paracetamol
What is the headache that is MC in males?
Cluster headache
What are the risk factors of cluster headaches?
Smoker
Male
Autosomal dominant gene
What are the symptomss of cluster headache?
Abrupt onset and ALWAYS UNILATERAL ON THE SAME SIDE
Excruciating pain around ONE eye, temple, or forehead
Can have ptosis and bloodshot eye
Stuffy nose
Crescendo pattern
How are cluster headaches treated acutely?
100% oxygen for 15 mins
SC sumatriptan
How are cluster headaches prevented?
Verapamil (CCB)
What are red flags in a headache?
Fever
Neoplasm history
Pregnancy
Sudden onset
Older onset
LOC
Papillodema
Worse by sitting/ standing
Define motor neurone disease
Degenerative disease caused by loss of neurones from the motor cortex, anterior horn cells, and cranial nerve nuclei
What are the risk factors of MND?
FHx
Smoking
Exposure to pesticides and heavy metal
What are upper motor neurone signs?
More muscle tone/Spascisity
More/Brisk reflexes
Positive babinski sign
Toes point UP
Upper limb extensor <flexors
Lower limb flexor < extensor
What are lower motor neurone signs?
Less muscle tone/ flaccid
Fasciculations (twitching)
Muscle wasting
Less reflexes
Visible spontaneous contraction of motor units
Toes point down
Negative babinski
What is Babinski sign?
toes go UP when foot stroked
What gene is linked to MND?
SOD-1
What should mixed UMN and LMN signs indicate?
MND
How is MND distinguished from MG?
MND never affects eye movements
How is MND distinguished from MS?
MND Never affects senses or sphincters
What are the symptoms of MND?
Stumbling spastic gait
Foot drop
Weak grip
Shoulder abduction hard
Absence of sensory symptoms
When does MND usually present?
> 40 years old but usually middle age
How is MND diagnosed?
Mainly clinical
- definitive of LMN and UMN signs present in 3 regions
Nerve conduction studies
EMG
What are the 4 types of MND?
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA)
Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP)
Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS)
What is the MC MND?
ALS
What occurs in ALS?
Loss of motor neurones in motor cortex
What are the symptoms of ALS?
UMN+LMN signs
Painless progressive spastic paraplegics
Split hand sign- thumb adrift
What are the symptoms of PMA?
LMN ONLY
Weakness, muscle wasting starting in one limb and spreading
Starts distally
What is affected in PBP?
Lower cranial nerves (9+)
What are the symptoms of PBP?
LMN ONLY
Tongue palsy
Trouble swallowing
Choking
Trouble chewing
What causes PLS?
Loss of Betz cells in motor neurones
What are the symptoms of PLS?
UMN ONLY
Spastic leg weakness
Progressive tetraparesis
How is MND treated?
Riluzole
Analgesia
Palliative
How does riluzole work?
Antiglutamatergic
Na+ channel blocker inhibits glutamate release
Where are LMN located?
Anterior horns of spinal cord and in cranial nerve nuclei in brain stem
Define peripheral neuropathy
Damages to peripheral nerves causing motor and sensory changes
What are the causes of peripheral neuropathy?
ABCDE
Alcohol
B12 deficiency
Cancer and CKD
DM and drugs
Every vasculitis
What are 2 mechanisms of peripheral neuropathy?
Axonal loss
Demyelination
Compression
Wallerian degeneration (nerve cut and dies distally)
How does axonal loss in peripheral neuropathy present?
Sensory changes: numbness, burning, pins and needles
THEN
Motor symptoms
How does demyelination present in peripheral neuropathy?
Motor changes then sensory
How is peripheral neuropathy diagnosed?
Nerve conduction studies
Define mononeuritis multiplex
Peripheral neuropathy affecting several individual nerves
What are the causes of mononeuritis multiplex?
WARDS PLC
Werner’s
AIDS/ amyloidosis
RA
DMT2
Sarcoidosis
Polyarteritis nodosa
Leprosy
Carcinoma
What causes Brown-Sequard syndome?
Hemisection of spinal cord
What are the symptoms of Brown-Sequard syndome?
In relation to lesion
Ipsilateral hemiplegia
Ipsilateral loss of proprioception, motor and vibration
Contralateral loss of pain and temperature
Describe why the symptoms of Brown-sequard syndrome occur
Ipsilateral loss of motor ect= corticospinal cord decussates at medulla
Contralateral loss= spinothalamic cord descussates in spinal tract
Define Charcot-Marie Tooth syndrome
Inherited disease affecting motor + sensory nerve caused by a dysfunction in myelin OR axons
What are the 2 types of Charcot-Marie Tooth syndrome?
Type 1: demyelinating (MC)
Type 2: axonal
What gene is mutated in CMT?
Autodom mutation of PMP22 gene on chromosome 17
What are the symptoms of CMT?
Firstly affects feet, then progresses to hands
Clumsiness
Weak ankles/ strained ankles
HIGH FOOT ARCH AND HAMMER TOES (pes cavus)
Foot drop
STORK LEGS
How is CMT diagnosed?
Nerve conduction tests (reduced in type 1)
Genetic testing
Nerve biopsy
How is CMT treated?
Physio
Exercise
Supportive
What is Wernickes encephalopathy?
Reversible acute emergency of severe thiamine deficiency
What is the MC cause of Wernickes encephalopathy?
Excess alcohol
What are the symptoms of Wernickes encephalopathy?
Triad:
Ataxia
Confusion
Opthalmoplegia
How is Wernickes encephalopathy diagnosed?
Clinical
Macrocytic anaemia
Deranged LFT
How is Wernickes encephalopathy treated?
Parenteral pabrinex
Oral thiamine for prophylaxis
What is the complication of Wernickes encephalopathy?
Korsakoff syndrome
Irreversible damage and increased memory loss
Define Duchenne muscular dystrophy
X linked recessive mutated dystrophin gene
What occurs in Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Muscle replaced with adipose
What are the symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Gower’s sign (cant get up from lying down)
Skeletal deformities
Wheelchair bound
Respiratory arrest by 20s :(
How is Duchenne muscular dystrophy diagnosed?
- Creatine kinase
Genetic testing
Define tremor
Voluntary rhythmic oscillatory movement
What are the features of an essential tremor?
Alcohol suppresses
Progressive
Quite fast
What are the features of a dystonic tremor?
Task specific
Variable axis
Little finger hyperextended
What are the features of a functional tremor?
Disttractabilty (improves when attention shifts)
Variability
Slow, effortful
Archimedes spiral
Define dystonia
Agonist and antagonist muscle activated simultaneously causing twisting movements
What are the features of dystonia
Better walking backwards
Spontaneous remission
Stress exacerbated
Define chorea
Abnormal, abrupt, unpredictable involuntary movement
Define myoclonus
Sudden, brief, involuntary jerk of movements
Define tic
Brief movement or vocalisations that resemble voluntary actions
How is Bell’s palsy differentiated from a stroke?
Bell’s palsy affects forehead
Are primary or secondary brain tumours more common?
Secondary
What is the MC origin of a brain tumour?
Non small cell lung
What is the MC primary brain tumour?
Astrocytoma
What are 3 primary brain cancers?
Astrocytoma
Oligodendrocytoma
Meningioma
How is Astrocytoma graded?
WHO I-IV
What are the 4 categories of Astrocytoma?
I: pilocytic
II: diffuse astrocytoma
III: anaplastic astrocytoma
IV: glioblastoma multiforme (WORST)
What are the symptoms of a primary brain tumour?
Increased ICP: headache, drowsiness, vomiting, PAPILLODEMA
Neuro defecit
Seizure (focal)
Lethargy/tiredness
How are brain tumours diagnosed?
CT with contrast /MRI
Should a lumbar puncture be done in brain tumours?
No
Can provoke coning (herniation through foramen magnum -> brain stem compression -> potential death)
How are brain tumours treated?
Surgery
Chemo
What haemmorage involves veins?
SDH
What is the Mc cause of bacterial meningitis?
Streptococcus pneumoniae
What haemmorage does not cross sutures?
EDH