Neurology Flashcards

1
Q

Stroke

A

acute neurological condition resulting from a disruption in cerebral perfusion either due to ischaemia (ischaemic stroke) or haemorrhage (haemorrhage stroke)

characterised by acute onset focal neurological deficits the pattern being dictated by the affected vessel and last >24h

4th most common single cause of death in UK

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2
Q

Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)

A

acute onset focal neurological deficits which resolve within 24h

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3
Q

Middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke symptoms

A

Most commonly affected vessel

-contralateral weakness/hemiparesis and sensory loss
(more marked in upper limbs & lower half of face than in lower limbs)
-contralateral homonymous hemianopia
-gaze deviation (if superior MCA division)
-Aphasia
Broca’s/expressive (if superior MCA branch)
Wernicke’s/receptive (if inferior MCA branch)
conductive aphasia (if inferior MCA branch)
-Hemineglect, usually contralateral (if non dominant hemisphere)

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4
Q

Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) stroke symptoms

A

-contralateral hemiparesis/weakness & sensory loss (more pronounced in lower limbs than upper limbs)
-dysarthria
-limb apraxia (inability to perform precise, voluntary movements)
-frontal release sign
urinary incontinence

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5
Q

Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) stroke symptoms

A
  • contralateral homonymous hemianopia with macular sparing
  • contralateral sensory loss especially light touch/pinprick/proprioception
  • memory deficits
  • if dominant (left hemisphere): visual agnosia, expressive aphasia
  • if non dominant (right hemisphere): prosopagnosia (inability to recognise faces)
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6
Q

Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) stroke symptoms

A

lateral medullary syndrome (Wallenberg syndorme)
ipsilateral nystagmus, vertigo, limb ataxia, Horner syndrome, ↓pain & temp sensation to face, bulbar palsy (dysphagia/dysphonia)

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7
Q

Anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) stroke symptoms

A

lateral pontine syndrome
contralateral loss of pain & temp sensation
ipsilateral limb & gait ataxia, loss of facial pain & temp sensation, facial muscle weakness, ↓lacrimation, vertigo, nystagmus, hearing loss, Horner syndrome

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8
Q

Basilar artery stroke

A

locked in syndrome

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9
Q

Weber’s syndrome

A

stroke in branches of PCA supplying midbrain
Ipsilateral CNIII palsy
contralateral weakness of upper & lower extremities

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10
Q

Lenticulostriate arteries (Deep MCA branches) stroke symptoms

A

No cortical signs (e.g. neglect/visual loss/aphasia)

presents as isolated hemiparesis, hemisensory loss, limb ataxia

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11
Q

Oxford stroke classification (Bamford classification)

A

asses the following features:

  • unilateral hemiparesis and/or hemisensory loss of face, arm, leg
  • homonymous hemianopia
  • higher cognitive dysfunction e.g. aphasia
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12
Q

Total anterior circulation infarct (Bamford classification)

A

~15% of strokes
involves MCA & ACA

Presents with

  • unilateral hemiparesis and/or hemisensory loss of face, arm, leg
  • homonymous hemianopia
  • higher cognitive dysfunction e.g. aphasia
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13
Q

Partial anterior circulation infarct (Bamford classification)

A

~25% of strokes
involves smaller arteries of anterior circulation

presents with 2 of

  • unilateral hemiparesis and/or hemisensory loss of face, arm, leg
  • homonymous hemianopia
  • higher cognitive dysfunction e.g. aphasia
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14
Q

Lacunar infarcts (Bamford classification)

A

~25% of strokes
involves perforating arteries around basal ganglia/thalamus/internal capsule

Presents with 1 of

  • unilateral weakness and/or sensory deficit of face/arms/legs
  • pure sensory stroke
  • ataxic hemiparesis
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15
Q

Posterior circulation infarcts (Bamford classification)

A

~25%
involves vertebrobasilar arteries

Presents with 1 of

  • cerebellar/brainstem syndromes
  • LOC
  • isolated homonymous hemianopia
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16
Q

Assessment & investigations of stroke

A

FAST assessment
ROSIER score

non-contrast CT head (GOLD standard)*

serum glucose* (to exclude hypoglycaemia)
FBCs/U&Es/LFTs/Coag
ECG (check for AF)
Consider MRI & carotid artery doppler

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17
Q

Differential diagnosis for stroke

A
Hypoglycaemia (must be excluded)
Seizure disorders
complicated migraines
subdural haematoma
hypertensive encephalopathy 
brain tumour
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18
Q

Ischaemic stroke

A

A stroke due to vascular occlusion/stenosis causing ischaemia, leading to cerebral infarction due to insufficient cerebral blood flow

~85% of all strokes

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19
Q

Subtypes of ischaemic strokes

A

Thrombotic e..g thrombus in large vessel such as the carotids

Embolic e.g. embolus from heart in AF

global cerebral ischaemia e.g. in cardiac arrest

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20
Q

Risk factors for ischaemic stroke

A
AF
↑ age
FH of stroke
previous ischaemic stroke
HTN
smoking
hyperlipidaemia
previous TIA
peripheral arterial disease
carotid artery stenosis
diabetes
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21
Q

Presentation of ischaemic stroke

A

sudden onset of focal neurological deficits depending on which vessel is involved

impaired consciousness (but LOC is uncommon in stroke)
nausea
vomiting
headache

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22
Q

Ischaemic stroke on CT

A

hyperdense occluded vessel

hypo attenuated brain parenchyma (dark)

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23
Q

Management of ischaemic stroke

A

Reperfusion therapy:
IV thromobolysis e.g. alteplase/tenecteplase
give within ≤4.5h of symptom onset
NB a hemorrhagic stroke must be excluded

Thrombectomy
offer in addition to IV thrombolysis if within 6h
offer within 24h if confirmed anterior circulation stroke

BP control
Aspirin 300mg

rehab PT/OT/SALT

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24
Q

Long term secondary prophylaxis in ischaemic stroke

A

1st line: 75mg clopidogrel

2nd line: 75mg aspirin + MR dipyridamole

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25
Contraindications for thrombolysis
``` Previous intracranial haemorrhage Intracranial neoplasm Active bleeding Pregnancy Uncontrolled hypertension ```
26
Haemorrhagic stroke
A stroke due to the rupture of a blood vessel leading to intracerebral (intraparenchymal) / subarachnoid / intraventricular haemorrhage ~15% of all strokes
27
Risk factors for hemorrhagic stroke
``` ↑age HTN arteriovenous malformation (AVM) anticoagulation therapy male gender heavy alcohol use family history of intracerebral haemorrhage haemophilia & other clotting disorders asian ethnicity ```
28
Presentation of hemorrhagic stroke
generally gradually progressive worsening of focal neurological deficits later on: ↑ ICP (nausea & vomiting, LOC, confusion, fixed dilated pupils)
29
Hemorrhagic stroke on CT
hyperlattenuation (bright) new blood with surrounding hypo attenuated (dark) oedema
30
Management of haemorrhagic stroke
reverse anticoagulation / stop anticoagulants Consider surgical intervention rehab PT/OT/SALT
31
Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
temporary focal ischaemia that results in reversible neurological deficits without acute infarction (Tissue based definition, not time based) most pts have complete reversal if symptoms within 1h ↑ risk of stroke after TIA
32
Investigations for Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
FBCs/U&Es/FLTs/blood glucose/coag MRI(1st line imaging) NB CT is no longer recommended 1st line
33
Management of Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
If TIA in the last 7 days then TIA clinic within 24h If TIA >7days ago then TIA clinic within 7 days NB pt should not drive until seen by TIA clinic 300mg aspirin immediately then 75 mg clopidogrel daily lifelong if pt has a bleeding disorder/ taking anticoagulant = needs immediate admission for imaging to exclude a haemorrhage
34
Primary prevention of strokes
lifestyle advice (diet/smoking/exercise/alcohol) statin therapy treat HTN treat AF (asses with CHADS-VASC score fro stroke risk & HAS-BLED score to asses risk of bleeding)
35
Secondary prevention of strokes
300mg aspirin daily for 2 weeks once haemorrhage excluded then 75 mg clopidogrel daily lifelong (75mg aspirin + MR dipyridamole if clopidogrel not tolerated) statins carotid endarterectomy/carotid artery stenting if stenosis >70%
36
Epilepsy/seizure disorders
A seizure is defined as a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain epilepsy is defined as a chronic neurological condition characterised by any of the following - ≥2 unprovoked seizures (reflex seizures) occurring >24h apart - 1 unprovoked seizure with an underlying predisposition to seizures - diagnosis of an epilepsy syndrome
37
Focal seizures
originating within the networks linked to one hemisphere, often seen with underlying structural disease
38
Types of focal seizure
``` Focal aware (simple partial): awareness unimpaired, no post octal symptoms, with focal motor/sensory/autonomic/psychic symptoms ``` Focal impaired awareness (complex partial): awareness impaired at seizure onset/following simple partial aura, some post octal symptoms focal to bilateral (secondary generalised): focal seizure that spreads widely triggering a usually convulsive general seizure
39
Generalised seizures
originating at some point within & rapidly engaging bilaterally distributed networks leading to simultaneous onset of widespread electrical discharge with no localising features referable to a single hemisphere NB all include loss of awareness
40
Absence seizure
non motor seizures common presentation of epilepsy in childhood brief LOC, interrupted motion/activity, blank stares, unresponsiveness, usually lasting 5-30 sec may have subtle automatisms consciousness rapidly returns may occur multiple times during day
41
Tonic-clonic seizure
prodrome may occur hours before seizure e.g. mood change, irritability, anxiety sudden LOC without warning often bladder/bowel incontinence Motor symptoms: -Tonic: generalised muscle contraction, including apnoea, tongue biting, cyanosis, octal cry -Clonic: rhythmic muscle twitching/jerking Postictal: hyper salivation, confusion, amnesia, unresponsiveness
42
Myoclonic seizure
sudden jerk of limb/face/trunk, pt may be thrown to the ground suddenly/violently or have a disobedient limb
43
Atonic seizure
sudden loss of muscle tone leading to fall, no LOC also known as drop attacks usually lasts ~2sec
44
Aetiology of seizures
mostly idiopathic seizures with focal onset are more likely to have underlying disease causes include cerebrovascular disease, brain neoplasm, head injury, neurodegenerative disease, drugs (e.g. isoniazid), CNS infection`
45
Focal seizures with intact awareness
from focal cerebral regions confined to 1 hemisphere may have a prodrome consciousness is always retained features can include motor (clonic involuntary repetitive movements of contralateral limb/facial muscles) or sensory or psychiatric symptoms (parasthesia, vertigo, unusual/intense smells, complex sounds, hallucinations)
46
focal seizures with impaired awareness
frequently originate in temporal lobes may have sensory/psychic symptoms (hallucinations, disorientation) sudden behavioural arrest impaired consciousness automatisms e.g. lip smacking, chewing, fumbling
47
Investigating seizures
Pt history &collateral (key) EEG (indicated after any unprovoked seizure) MRI head (CT head if MRI unavailable) Bloods (FBC/U&Es/LFTs/glucose/prolactin/creatinine/Ca2+) ECG LP (if CNS infection suspected) consider short term video-EEG or inpatient video-EEG) or polysomnogrpahy
48
EEG results for epilepsy
may show generalised epileptiform activity (bursts of abnormal discharges) or focal localising abnormality but also frequently normal even after provocation e.g. hyperventilation, visual stimuli, sleep deprivation if seizure caught = epileptiform discharges
49
Management of simple focal seizures
1st line: carbamazepine or lamotrigine 2nd line: levetiracetam/sodium valproate
50
Management of generalised tonic-clonic seizures
1st line: sodium valproate 2nd line: carbamazepine/lamotrigine
51
Management of absence seizures
1st line: ethosuximide/sodium valproate 2nd line: lamotrigine NB carbamazepine may exacerbate absence seizures
52
Atonic seizures treatment
Sodium valproate
53
Driving and epilepsy
6 months no driving: if first time seizure & no underlying structural abnormality and no epileptiform activity on EEG 12 months no driving: if first time seizure but not meeting above criteria Epileptics: can drive if seizure free fro 12 months no driving whilst withdrawing/till 6months after withdrawing epilepsy medication
54
Status epilepticus
single seizure lasting >5 min or ≥2 seizures within a 5 minute period or without pt returning to baseline between seizures
55
Management of status epilepticus
ABCDE assessment IV lorazepam/rectal diazepam/buccal midazolam (repeat dose at 10 minutes) If seizure continues then IV phenytoin or phenobarbital if no response/refractory (>45min) then RSI (with propofol/midazolam)
56
Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP)
defined as sudden, unexpected, non-witnessed, non-traumatic , non-drowning death of a person with epilepsy with or without a seizures excluding documented status epileptics and in whom post-mortem examination does not reveal a structural/toxicological cause of death usually occurs in those with chronic epilepsy often occurring in sleep, usually in a young person/young adult with medically intractable epilepsy
57
Parkinson's disease (PD)
idiopathic PD is a neurodegenerative disordering rthat involves progressive depletion of dopaminergic neutrons in the basal ganglia, particularly the substantial migration generally idiopathic but some genetic predispositions exist (LRRK2, SNCA, PINK-1, Parkin) 2nd most common neurodegenerative disorder after alzheimers
58
Epidemiology of parkinson's
onset usually age 60-65yrs more common in men NB juvenile parkinson is onset <21 yrs NB young onset PD is onset age 21-40 yrs
59
Pathophysiology of Parkinson's
selective loss nigrostriatal dopaminergic neutrons of the substantiated migration pars compacta occurs with findings of intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion (lewy bodies) & neuritis composed of misfolded, clumped alpha-synuclein lead to ↓ activity of direct pathway & ↑activity of indirect pathway leading to ↑ inhibitory activity from globes pallidus/substatia migration zone reticulata to the thalamus leading to ↓ output to the cortex
60
Cardinal features of Parkinson's
Bradykinesia (hypokinesia, difficulty initiating movements, short shuffling gait, ↓ arm swing) rigidity (cogwheel) tremor (resting tremor, 4-6Hz, typically pin rolling of thumb & index)
61
Presentation of Parkinson's
gradually worsening symptoms early stage: constipation, anosmia, sleep disturbance later: Motor symptoms: (Bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor) usually unilateral postural instability, Prakinson's gait (shuffling), micrographia, ↓ facial expression Non motor symptoms: urinary urgency, orthostatic hypotension, impaired sexual function, psychiatric problems (e.g. depression, anxiety, sleep disturbance), fatigue, sleep fragmentation
62
Diagnostic criteria for Parkinson's
Bradykinesia plus ≥1 of: - muscular rigidity - 4-6Hz resting tremor - postural instability not caused by primary visual/vestibular/proprioceptive dysfunction
63
Investigating Parkinson's
Generally clinical diagnosis ``` investigations to exclude differentials: CT/MRI brain SPECT scan Flurodopa PET genetic testing 24h urine copper (for Wilson's disease) ceruloplasmin (for Wilson's disease) ```
64
Non-pharmacological management of Parkinson's
``` specialist referral health & social care assessment physiotherapy physical activity nutritional support SALT ``` Surgical: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) - for advanced PD not adequately controlled by medication
65
Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's
Motor symptoms with affected QoL: Levodopa (L-Dopa) Motor symptoms no affecting QoL: dopamine agonists/Levodopa NB decarboxylase inhibitors e.g. carbidopa or COMT inhibitors e.g. entecapone/tolcapone may be offered with L-dopa when it begins to show ↓ effectiveness SSRIs for depression
66
L-Dopa (levodopa)
dopamine precursor may be combined with decarboxylase inhibitors e.g. carbidopa/benserazide to prevent peripheral metabolisation honeymoon period of 5-10yrs before adverse effects arise NOT effective in neuroleptic induced parkinsonism
67
Dopamine agonists
e.g. bromocriptine, cabergoline, rotigotine, apomorphine, pramipexole similar adverse effects to L-Dopa but more severe & common
68
MAO-B inhibitors
e.g. selegiline, rasegiline ↓ breakdown of dopamine secreted by dopaminergic neutrons early monotherapy may delay need for L-Dopa
69
Amantadine
NMDA antagonists drug of choice for akinetic crisis cannot be used long term, loses effect
70
COMT inhibitors
e.g. entecapone, tolcapone inhibit catechol-O-methyltransferase = ↓ peripheral L-Dopa breakdown & ↓ CNS dopaminergic breakdown usually used in conjunction with L-Dopa in those with established PD
71
L-Dopa adverse effects
usually arise after 5-10yrs honeymoon period On-Off effect Motor fluctuations (hypokinesia, dyskinesia) Akinetic crisis visual hallucinations orthostatic hypotension (↓ with carbidopa) Nausea & vominting (↓ with carbidopa)
72
On-Off effect of L-Dopa
pt may switch from controlled symptoms/dyskinesia to no effect/immobility over a few minutes due to ↓ action of L-Dopa / wearing off of medication may be helped by COMT inhibitors, prolongs release L-Dopa preparations or dopamine agonists
73
Motor fluctuations of L-Dopa
Hypokinesia: end of dose akinesia (wearing off effect), freezing Dyskinesia (hyperkinesia): usually at beginning/end of dose or at peak cana ct long acting dopamine agonist/ COMT inhibitors
74
Akinetic crisis in Parkinson's
condition caused by severe dopamine deficiency which may be cause by sudden L-Dopa suddenly discontinued worsened motor symptoms + severe akinesia treated with apomorphine, amantadine, L-Dopa
75
Other causes of Parkinson's
Drug induced e.g. antipsychotics or metoclopramide (usually rapid bilateral onset of symptoms) Toxins Wilson's disease Alzheimers with Parkinsonism Parkinson-plus syndromes (MSA, progressive supra nuclear palsy) post-encephalitis
76
Hallmark of drug induced Parkinson's
bilateral symptoms rapid onset
77
Parkinson-plus syndrome
rare neurodegenerative conditions presenting with Parkinsonism and a variety of other features have less favourable prognosis than Parkinson's generally do not respond to L-Dopa, have earlier involvement of autonomic nervous system and early onset of postural instability with frequent falls & dementia
78
Multiple system atrophy (MSA)
Parkinson plus syndrome adult onset neurodegenerative disease characterised by neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra Presentation: parkinsonism, cerebellar dysfunction (ataxia, tremor, dysarthria), urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, orthostatic hypotension clinical diagnosis (hot cross bun sign on MRI) only symptomatic treatment available
79
Progressive supra nuclear palsy (PSP)
presents with vertical gaze palsy (especially downward gaze), postural instability & frequent falls, wide base stance, retropulsion, bradykinesia, dysarthria, apathy, disinhibition, frontal lobe dysfunction MRI: midbrain atrophy (hummingbird sign)
80
Corticobasal degeneration
neurdegeneration of the cerebral cortex & basal ganglia presents with asymmetric motor abnormalities, alien limb phenomenon (pt perceives affected limb as not belonging to them), apraxia, cortical sensory loss
81
Huntington's disease (HD)
slow progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by chorea ( characterised by jerky involuntary movements), incoordination, cognitive decline , personality change & psychiatric symptoms typically develops ages 35
82
Genetics of Huntington's
autosomal dominant inherited disease caused by mutation in Huntingtin gene (chromosome 4( leads to trinucleotide repeat disorder with expansion of a CAG trinucleotide exhibits phenomenon of anticipation
83
Pathophysiology of Huntington's
leads to degeneration of cholinergic & GABAergic neutrons in the striatum of the basal ganglia at start of indirect pathway leading to ↑ cortical activity
84
Presentation of Huntington's
Early stages: personality change, self neglect, apathy, clumsiness, fidgeting, fleeting facial grimacing Initial stage: chorea (involuntary, sudden, irregular, non-repetitive arrhythmic movements of limbs/neck/head/face) athetosis (involuntary writhing movements particularly of head/fingers) hyperreflexia, saccadic eye movement slowed (head turning to shift gaze) Advanced stages: hypokinetic motor symptoms (dystonia, bradkykinesia, rigidity), akinetic mutism, motor impersistence (inability to sustain simple voluntary acts), dysarthria, dysphagia, clonus, spasticity cognitive decline, behavioural change, dementia, more depressive disorder, aggression, psychosis
85
Investigations of Huntington's
generally clinical diagnosis CAG genetic testing (≥40 CAG repeats = positive, ≤28 CAG repeats = normal, 28-40 CAG repeats = expanded sequence)
86
Management of Huntington's
SSRIs for depression & behavioural disorders psychotherapy physiotherapy early palliative care input atypical antipsychotics for psychosis & chorea
87
prognosis of Huntington's
currently relentless progressive disorder with steadily worsening symptoms disease duration till death ~20yrs death most commonly caused by intercurrent illness e.g. pneumonia 2nd most common cause of death = suicide
88
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
inflammatory immune mediated chronic degenerative disease characterise by repeated episodes of inflammation of the nervous tissue in the brain & spinal cord leading to demyelination
89
Epidemiology of Multiple sclerosis (MS)
3:1 female:male ratio onset usually age 20-40 yrs more common in white population Family history = biggest risk factor
90
Subtypes of Multiple sclerosis (MS)
relapsing & remitting MS: (RR-MS) most common form (~85-90%) acute exacerbations lasting 1-2 months followed by periods of remission (≥ 30 days of clinical stability) secondary progressive disease : (SP-MS) pts who have deteriorated & developed neurological signs & symptoms between relapses ~65% of pts with RR-MS develop SP-MS within 15 yrs of diagnosis primary progressive disease (PP-MS) ~10% of pts progressive deterioration from onset more common in older pts
91
Presentation of Multiple sclerosis (MS)
wide range of signs & symptoms, depend on location of lesions often unspecific e.g. fatigue, headache, lethargy ``` Optic/visual symptoms: optic neuritis (common early presenting feature, acute impaired vision & colourblindness) generally unilateral relative afferent pupillary defect intranuclear ophthalmoplegia, optic atrophy, eye movement issues ``` Sensory: pins&needles, parenthesia/numbensss, trigeminal neuralgia, Lhermitte sign (shooting electric sensation in limb on neck flexion) ``` Motor: spastic weakness (most commonly in legs) ``` Cerebellar: ataxia, intention tremor, scanning, speech, nystagmus ``` others: neuropathic pain, cranial nerve palsies, sensory ataxia, bowel&bladder dysfunction, sexual dysfunction Uthoff phenomenon (reversible worsening neurological symptoms on ↑ body temp) ```
92
Lhermitte sign
shooting electric sensation in limbs on neck flexion
93
Uhthoff's phenomenon
reversible worsening neurological symptoms on ↑ body temp
94
Investigating Multiple sclerosis (MS)
- MRI brain/spinal cord (multiple sclerotic plaques, commonly in periventricular white matter) - contrast enhanced MRI (enhancement of active lesions) - Lumbar puncture (CSF = oligo clinical bands & ↑ CSF IgG)
95
McDonald criteria
used to diagnose Multiple sclerosis (MS) based on dissemination in time & space of CNS lesions disseminated in time = appearance of new lesions overtime / multiple relapses / active & old lesions on MRI disseminated in space = presence of lesions in different regions of the CNS
96
Management of active multiple sclerosis (MS) relapses
1st line: high dose steroids e.g. oral/IV methylprednisolone (help shorten length of relapse) 2nd line: plasma exchange
97
Disease modifying drugs for Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Beta-interferon (↓ relapses rate by ~30%) NB must have RR-MS/SP-MS + ≥2 relapses inlets 2 years + walk ≥100m unaided Rituximab / ocrelizumab / alemtuzumab / fingolimod
98
Symptomatic treatments for Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Fatigue: trial of amantadine Spasticity: baclofen / gabapentin + physiotherapy bladder dysfunction: intermittent self catheterisation Nystagmus (affecting visual acuity): gabapentin
99
Myasthenia gravis (MG)
chronic autoimmune disorder of the post synaptic membrane at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in skeletal muscle the pathological process involves autoantibodies directed against the post synaptic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) leading to impaired neuromuscular transmission
100
Epidemiology of Myasthenia gravis (MG)
More common in women women present earlier than men (usually during childbearing age) males present later (age 40-70)
101
Aetiology of Myasthenia gravis (MG)
80-90% have autoantibodies against nicotinic AChR on post synaptic membrane of NMJ 5-10~ have autoantibodies against muscle specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK)
102
Associated conditions with Myasthenia gravis (MG)
Thymoma (in 10-15% of pts) Thymic hyperplasia (65% of pts) other autoimmune conditions: SLE, thyroiditis, RA
103
Presentation of Myasthenia gravis (MG)
Muscle fatiguability: weakness worsens with activity & improves with rest generally diurnal variation (worse in evening) Eye muscle weakness: patois, diplopia, blurred vision Bulbar muscle weakness: slurred speech, dysphagia, dysarthria, difficulty chewing NO muscle wasting or fasciculations Normal tone unimpaired sensation normal reflexes
104
Investigating Myasthenia gravis (MG)
AChR & MuSK antibody tests (+ve/↑ levels) CT thorax (exclude thymoma) single fibre EMG (↑ variability in motor latencies (jitter) or complete block in some neuromuscular transmission) repetitive nerve stimulation (>10% ↓ in compound action potential amplitude between 1st & 4th potential of 10 = decremental response) Edrophonium (tension) test: not commonly used, give short acting acetylcholinesterase inhibitor reversing symptoms
105
Management of Myasthenia gravis (MG)
1st line: Long acting acetylcholinesterase inhibitor e.g. pyridostigmine (symptomatic treatment) Immunosuppressant (usually in addition to pyridostigmine) initially prednisolone then one of the below e.g. azathioprine, cyclosporine, tacrloimus emergent: rituximab, eculizumab, belimumab thymomectomy (even if no thymoma)
106
Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
rare autoimmune disease of the NMJ that leads to impaired presynaptic release of acetylcholine (ACh) due to production of autoantibodies against presynaptic voltage gated Ca2+ channels required for presynaptic vesicle fusion to allow ACh release rare condition more common in males
107
Risk factors/Associated conditions for Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
associated with Small cell lung carcinoma Risk factors: cancer (found within 2 years of LEMS onset) long term smoking history
108
Presentation of Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
generally insidious symptom onset proximal muscle weakness (improves throughout day) usually proximal muscles of lower limbs so gaits affected, then progresses to arms limb-girdle weakness hyporeflexia/arefelxia autonomic symptoms (dry mouth, sexual dysfunction, constipation, postural hypotension) ocular/oropharyngeal muscles rarely affected repeated muscle contraction = ↑ strength initially before ↓ muscle strength (Lambert sign)
109
Presentation of Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
generally insidious symptom onset proximal muscle weakness (improves throughout day) usually proximal muscles of lower limbs so gaits affected, then progresses to arms limb-grille weakness hyporeflexia/arefelxia autonomic symptoms (dry mouth, sexual dysfunction, constipation, postural hypotension) ocular/oropharyngeal muscles rarely affected repeated muscle contraction = ↑ strength initially before ↓ muscle strength (Lambert sign)
110
differences between myasthenia gravis & Lambert-Eaton syndrome
MG: commonly affects ocular/oropharyngeal muscles LE: doesn't commonly affected ocular/oropharyngeal muscles MG: normoreflexic LE: hyporeflexia/areflexia MG: autonomic symptoms uncommon LE: autonomic symptoms common MG: decremental response to repetitive stimulation LE: incremental response to repetitive stimulation MG: AChR antibodies positive LE: no AChR antibodies MG: good effect with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors LE: little effect with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
111
Investigating Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
AChR antibodies (-ve) CT/MRI chest (for potential chest malignancy) anti-VGCC antibodies (+ve) consider bronchoscopy EMG (incremental response to repetitive stimulation ) screen for underlying cancer for 2yrs after diagnosis
112
Management of Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome (LEMS)
extensive search & treatment of underlying cancer 1st line: 3,4-diaminopyridine (improves muscle strength) Immunosuppression: IVIG, azathioprine, methotrexate, prednisolone
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Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT)
the most common hereditary peripheral neuropathy, heterogenous group of inherited neuropathies both motor & sensory nerves are usually affected with symmetrical changes on nerve conduction studies progressive nerve disorder due to impaired axonal or Schwann cell growth & function
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Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) genetics
commonly autosomal dominant inheritance CMT1A most common (>50% of cases) different subtypes have different onsets
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Presentation of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT)
slow insidious onset & slow progression CMT1 onset by age 10 muscle weakness & wasting starting distally in intrinsic muscles of feet moving into lower leg & thigh (foot drop, atrophy of calf muscles - champagne bottle legs, per caves, hammer toe) ascending flaccid paralysis beginning distally sensory loss follow some pattern of motor loss (↓ vibration & light touch) ↓ proprioception (sensory ataxia, high stepping gait)
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Investigating Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT)
nerve conduction studies (↓ conduction velocity, ↓ action potential amplitude, generally symmetrical deficits in all tested nerves, ↑ distal latencies) genetic testing for CMT genes
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Management of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT)
rehabilitation (stretching, mild-moderate exercise, orthotic devices) analgesia for neuropathic/non-neuropathic pain Surgical: orthopaedic surgery to counteract foot & ankle problems
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Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
describes an immune mediated demyelinating polyneuropathy frequently this is post-infectious, cross-reactive autoantibodies attack the hosts own axonal antigens leading to inflammatory & demyelinating polyneuropathy with axonal degeneration
119
epidemiology of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
slightly more common in males peak age 15-35 yrs & 50-75 yrs
120
Aetiology of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
frequently preceding GI infection or URTI ~1-7 weeks prior to symptoms onset campylobacter jejune classically implicated
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Subtypes of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP): acute form of GBS, 60-80% of cases, peak symptoms <4 weeks Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP): chronic for of GBS, usually anti-GM1 antibodies, presents similar to GBS but lasts >8 weeks Miller-Fisher syndrome: limited form of GBS involving cranial nerves
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Presentation of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
initially back & leg pain (neuropathic) progressive ascending symmetrical weakness of all limbs (usually legs affected first, bilateral ascending flaccid paralysis, proximal before distal muscles, areflexia/hyperreflexia, hypotonia) Paraesthesia (peripheral, symmetrically starting in hand & feet)
123
Investigating Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
Nerve conduction studies (↓ conduction velocity) lumbar puncture (↑ protein, normall WCC) antibody studies (antiganglioside antibodies) ECG FBC/U&Es/LFTs
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Management of Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS)
Plasma exchange IVIG, can be given longterm e.g. CIDP (need to give DVT prophylaxis) pain relief for neuropathic pain NB: Steroids not recommended for treatment
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Polyneuropathy/peripheral neuropathies
a disorder involving damage to multiple peripheral nerve fibres i.e. a generalised disease of the peripheral nerves frequently a manifestation of systemic illness classical presentation is a symmetric distal burning sensation or paresthesia
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Aetiology of Polyneuropathies
Demyelinating: CIDP, CMT , GBS, toxic polyneuropathy Axonal: diabetic neuropathy, alcohol abuse, HIV, lead poisoning, hypothyroidism
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General presentation of polyneuropathies
symmetric numbest, paraesthesia starting in the feet & distal lower extremities if severe may be glove & stocking distribution balance & gait may be impaired hyporeflexia distal muscle wasting
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Investigating polyneuropathies
``` FBC, HbA1c, TFTs, LFTs, Vit B12, folic acid serum toxin screen hepatitis serology HIV test nerve conduction studies EMG ```
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Diabetic neuropathy
progressive peripheral nerve injury due to chronic hyperglycaemia presents with distal symmetric sensory loss, burning feet syndrome (symptoms worse at night), trophic skin changes, autonomic features (erectile dysfunction, gastric atony)
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Alcoholic neuropathy
progressive peripheral nerve injury due to thiamine deficiency in chronic alcohol abuse + subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord affecting dorsal columns presents with symmetrical distal sensory loss (especially proprioception), burning feet syndrome
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HIV neuropathy
progressive peripheral nerve injury due to HIV virus presents with distal symmetrical neuropathy affecting sensory & motor nerves, may be exacerbated by retroviral therapy, autonomic features (erectile dysfunction, bladder dysfunction)
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Motor neurone disease (MND)
a rare neurological condition of unknown cause which can affect upper motor neurone (UMN) & lower motor neurons (LMN) subtypes include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), progressive bulbar palsy, progressive muscular atrophy, primary lateral sclerosis generally presents around age 40, more common in men
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General features of motor neurone disease
``` fasciculations absence of sensory signs/symptoms mixture of UMN & LMN signs no cerebellar signs ocular muscles spared muscle atrophy ```
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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
~50% of MND pts ``` 3 patterns: limb onset (most common), bulbar onset (20%), respiratory onset (rare) ``` Presentation: often starts as weakness in hands & feet fasciculations, cramps, muscle stiffness bulbar symptoms (dysarthria, dysphagia, tongue atrophy) in advanced disease: cognitive impairment, autonomic features, respiratory failure
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Progressive bulbar palsy
~20% of MND pts presents with palsy of tongue, muscles of mastication/swallowing, facial muscles worst prognosis
136
Primary lateral sclerosis
UMN signs only e.g. hypertonia, hyperreflexia, upping plantar reflex, spasticity in bulbar muscles, exagerated jaw jerk, weakness mainly in arm extensors & leg flexors
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Progressive muscular atrophy
LMN signs only | distal muscles affected before proximal, weakness, atrophy, hyporeflexia, hypotonia
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Myotonic dystrophy
an inherited myopathy effecting skeletal/cardiac/smooth muscle most common form of adult onset muscular dystrophy autosomal dominant trinucleotide repeat disorder, disease severity relates to number of repeats DM-1 = chronic progressive, more severe DM-2 = milder disease course
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Presentation of myotonic dystrophy
``` myotonia (delayed muscle relaxation following normal muscle contraction) muscle weakness muscle atrophy myalgia bilateral ptosis dysarthria dysphagia cataracts arrhythmia testicular atrophy/features of ovarian insufficiency frontal balding cognitive impairment ```
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Investigating myotonic dystrophy
``` EMG (to identify myotonia spontaneous discharges of waxing & waning amplitudes & frequencies) genetic testing muscle biopsy CK (↑) FHS (↑) testosterone (↓) ```
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Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
most common muscular dystrophy X-linked recessive mutation of dystrophin gene presents by age 3 progressive muscle paresis & atrophy (starts in pelvic girdle then spreads), weak reflexes, waddling gait, calf pseudo pseudohypertrophy, delayed motor milestones, scoliosis
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Becker's muscular dystrophy (BMD)
X-linked recessive mutation of dystrophin gene (partially functioning) milder clinical course than Duchenne & slower progression Similar presentation to Duchenne but less severe delayed walking, muscle cramps on exercise, children struggle with sport, muscle weakness (mainly in proximal limbs), pseudohypertrophy of calves
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Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD)
common adult onset muscular dystrophy autosomal dominant inheritance presents with progressive muscular weakness (asymmetrical) affecting face, scapula, upper arm, muscle pain is common
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Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD)
rare group of muscular dystrophies generally autosomal recessive presents with paresis & subsequent atrophy of pelvic & shoulder girdle muscle
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Investigating muscular dystrophies
Creatine kinase (↑↑↑, 50-100x) LFTs (↑ transaminase) EMG (myopathic reading) Muscle biopsy (absent dystrophin gene in DMD, ↓ quantity of dystrophin in BMD)
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Management of muscular dystrophies
physiotherapy including respiratory physio orthopaedic assistance devices & mobility aids psychological support ventilatory support respite care for families palliative care
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Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
autosomal recessive group of motor neurone disease caused by apoptosis of LMNs a spectrum of disorders that affect survival motor neurone gene 1 (SMN1) SMA2 is the most common
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Presentation of Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
``` symmetrical muscle weakness & atrophy affecting bulbar/limb/respiratory muscles if infantile onset = floppy baby hypotonia weak cough joint contractures dysphagia respiratory failure hyporeflexia fasciculations ``` sacral & CN III/IV/VI motor neurons preserved = preserved eye movements & continence
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Investigating Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
creatine kinase (slightly ↑) genetic testing muscular biopsy (muscle fibre atrophy) electrophysiology (↓ nerve signals, normal sensory conduction)
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Management of Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
MDT & palliative care approach orthotics respiratory support
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polymyositis
inflammatory disorder causing symmetrical proximal muscle weakness onset age 30-60, more common in females Presentation: proximal muscle weakness ± tenderness (difficulty rising from chair, climbing stairs, combing hair) distal muscles spared (i.e. preserved fine motor function of hand) atrophy of muscles preserved reflexes & sensation ``` Investigations: creatine kinase (↑), LDH/AST/ALT (↑), Anti-Jo1 antibodies (worse prognosis, associated with raynauds & interstitial lung disease), CRP (↑) EMG, Muscle biopsy (endomysial inflammatory infiltrates)) ```
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Dermatomyositis
symmetrical proximal muscle weakness + characteristic skin lesions systemic upset, fever, arthralgia, malaise, weight loss mechanics hands (dry, clay hands with linear creases) Gottron's papules (roughed red papule over extensor surfaces of fingers) macular rash over back & shoulders Investigations: CK (↑), aldolase (↑), LDH (↑) ANA antibody (+ve) EMG & muscle biopsy
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Inclusion body myositis
most common age related muscular disease, usually occurring above >50 yrs of age presents with slow progression of selective & asymmetrical muscle weakness in proximal & distal muscle groups, fatigue, exercise intolerance, dysphagia, hyporeflexia Investigations: EMG, Muscle biopsy
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Bulbar palsy & pseudo bulbar palsy aetiology
brainstem stroke/tumour neurodegenerative disease infective neuropathies
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Bulbar palsy presentation
bilateral damage/injury of CN IX/X/XI/XII normal facial expression/normal jaw jerk/emotions unaffected absent gag reflex tongue (wasting, fasciculations, inability to protrude tongue) nasal sounding speech dysphagia drooling nasal regurgitation
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Pseudobulbar palsy presentation
bilateral damage/injury of CN V/VII/IX/X/XI/XII ``` expressionless face (absent facial expression) spastic dysarthria dysphagia drooling brisk gag reflex exaggerated clonic jaw jerk tongue (spastic, pointed, no wasting/fasciculations) emotional incontinence ```
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Bulbar palsy vs pseudo bulbar palsy
``` Bulbar: normal facial expression normal jaw jerk emotions unaffected absent gag reflex ``` ``` Pseudobulbar: expressionless face exaggerated clonic jaw jerk emotional incontinence brisk gag reflex ```
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Intranuclear ophthalmoplegia (INO)
Damage to medial longitudinal fasiculus (connection between abducens nucleus CNVI on one side & occulomotor nucleus CNIII on the other side) leading to impaired lateral gaze e.g. caused by MS (bilateral), haemorrhage or brain tumours
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Intranuclear ophthalmoplegia (INO) manifestation
``` impaired adduction of the eye ipsilateral to the lesion dissociated nystagmus (gaze to opposite side = nystagmus of abducted contralateral eye) ```
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Occulomotor nerve (CN III) palsy
Ptosis Down & out eye fixed dilated pupil
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Trochlear nerve (CN IV) palsy
defective downward gaze = vertical diplopia (struggles walking up stairs/reading) impaired superior oblique
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Abducens nerve (CN VI) palsy
defective abduction leading to horizontal diplopia estropia (medial deviation of unaffected eye at primary gaze) most common ocular cranial nerve palsy
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Extradural/epidural haemorrhage (EDH)
a collection of blood in the potential space between the dura & skull (the bone may also be the spine) i.e. haemorrhage into the epidural space between dura mater & calvarium most commonly traumatic cause
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Epidemiology of extradural haemorrhage
4:1 male:female ratio most commonly seen age 20-30 uncommon over age 50
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Presentation of extradural haemorrhage
classically head injury associated with LOC followed by 'lucid interval' i.e. regained consciousness & near normal neurological function then further deterioration of consciousness & symptoms ↑ ICP (contralateral neurological deficits, headache, cushings triad, seizures, N&V, unilateral fixed dilated pupil, coma,) may have evidence of skull fracture (seen in >75% of EDH) e.g. CSF rhinorrhoea/otorrhoea, battle sign, raccoon eyes NB posterior fossa EDH = quick deterioration & death
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Cushings triad
Hypertension (especially systolic BP) Bradycardia irregular breathing
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extradural haemorrhage investigations
non contrast CT head: biconvex (lenticular shaped) sharply demarcated extra cranial lesion with hyper dense appearance limited by suture lines, often also skull fracture)
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Management of intracranial haemorrhages
ABCDE assessment urgent neurosurgery referral empiric ICP management (head up nursing, hyperventilation, IV mannitol/hypertonic saline) Neursurgery
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Subdural haemorrhage (SDH)
collection of blood between the dura and arachnoid coverings of the brain most often due to rupture of bridging veins generally traumatic, but may be low energy trauma in elderly due to stretching of bridging veins as the brain atrophies
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Types of subdural haemorrhage
Acute: symptom onset within 3 days Subacute: symptom onset 3-7 days post initial bleed Chronic: symptom onset 2-3 weeks after initial bleed
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Risk factors for subdural haemorrhage
anticoagulant use ↑ age alcoholics
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Presentation of acute subdural haemorrhage
``` usually presents shortly after moderate-to-severe head injury may progress rapidly depressed GCS LOC focal neurological signs signs of cerebral herniation pupillary abnormalities ↑ICP (headache, N&V, cushings triad) seizures ```
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Presentation of chronic subdural haemorrhage
``` insidious onset & gradual progression altered mental state (confusion, delirium, excessive drowsiness) recurrent headaches cognitive deficits (impaired memory) focal neurological deficits ataxia recurrent falls ```
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Investigating subdural haemorrhage
Non contrast CT head: crescent shaped concave sharply demarcated lesion that crosses suture lines, but does not cross midline ± middle shift Acute: hyperdense (white) Subacute: isodense Chronic: hypodense (dark) NB most commonly supratentorial
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Differentiating acute & chronic blood on CT
Acute: hyperdense (white) Subacute: isodense Chronic: hypodense (dark)
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management of asymptomatic subdural
conservative management
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Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
haemorrhage into the subarachnoid space may be traumatic or non traumatic e.g. from aneurysm ~5-10% of all strokes are caused by non traumatic SAH mean age of pts is 50yrs
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Risk factors for subarachnoid haemorrhage
``` HTN smoking cocaine use alcohol issue Marfan's syndrome family history ```
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Presentation of Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
thunderclap headache: sudden extremely painful headache, usually described as worst headache ever, often occipital Meningism (photophobia, neck stiffness) LOC seizures mass effect (altered mental state, focal neurological deficits)
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Investigating Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)
Non contrast CT head: hyper dense blood in subarachnoid space, usually in basal cistern & sulci ``` Lumbar puncture + CSF analysis (usually after 12h if CT inconclusive) : bloody CSF (xanthochromia), ↑protein, ↑opening pressure ```
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Subfalcine herniation
cingulate gyrus of one hemisphere compressed & herniates under fall cerebri leading to hydrocephalus & hemiparesis
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Uncal herniation
medial temporal lobe herniates at tentorial incisure leading to fixed dilated pupil, contralateral homonymous hemianopia, Kernohan phenomenon (paradoxical ipsilateral weakness)
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Tonsilar herniation
structures of the posterior fossa herniate through foramen magnum leading to LOC/impaired consciousness, apnoea, posturing, death
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Cerebral aneurysm
a focal abnormal dilation of the wall of cerebral artery which are generally located at the branching points of major cerebral arteries fairly common (~3% of population) often asymptomatic\ more common in women
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Types of aneurysms
``` Saccular (berry) aneurysm: most common (~85%), have round saccular shape, most commonly at junction of ACA & anterior communicating artery ``` Fusiform aneurysm: dilation of entire circumference of artery, associated with connective tissue disease & atherosclerosis Myotic aneurysm: mushroom dilation of infected vessel walls caused by septic emboli Charcot-Bouchard microaneurysm: associated with HTN & diabetes, often affecting small lenticulostriate vessels of basal ganglia + thalamus
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Presentation of aneurysms
generally asymptomatic if they rupture lead to Subarachnoid haemorrhage may elicit mass effect & compress brain structures
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Investigations for aneurysm
ruptured aneurysm as per SAH i.e. LP (xanthochromia) & non contrast CT head angiography (can see aneurysm in relation to arteries) CT angiogram/MRI angiogram
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Aneurysm management
conservative: follow up, lifestyle advice, BP control Surgical clipping or end-vascular coiling/obliteration (usually if >5mm or growing, in posterior circulation or near communicating arteries)
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Arteriovenous malformation (AVM)
congenital vascular malformation leading to abnormal connections between arteries & veins bypassing the capillaries 80% asymptomatic, 20% present with haemorrhage or seizures investigate with CT/MRI brain + CT/MRI angiogram managed conservatively or with endovascular embolisation or stereotactic radiotherapy (gamma knife)
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Cerebral/Intracranial venous thrombosis
a thrombotic obstruction of the cerebral venous system which can lead to ischaemic or haemorrhagic lesions in the brain relatively rare, causes ~5% of strokes women more frequently affected, usually aged 30-40 yrs
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Aetiology of intracranial venous thrombosis
``` infection (staph aureus most common) trauma pregnancy hypercoaguable state (e..g antiphospholipid syndrome) dehydration ```
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Presentation of intracranial venous thrombosis
symptoms depend on size & location of thrombosis often unspecific & masked by underlying disorder headache = most common signs of intracranial hypertension (bilateral papilloedema, N&V, diplopia, vision loss, confusion) Signs of cranial nerve dysfunction seizures
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Investigating intracranial venous thrombosis
CT/MRI & CT/MRI angiography (absence of flow on venogram, intraluminal venous thrombosis, may show areas of infarction not in keeping with arterial occlusion) D-dimer FBC/Coag/U&Es/CRP/LFTs/Blood cultures LP Thrombophilia screen
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Management of intracranial venous thrombosis
anticoagulation (LMWH at treatment dose) + warfarin long term empiric Abx end-vascular intervention/surgery (if severe, or rapidly progressing symptoms)
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Cavernous venous sinus thrombosis
rare type of intracranial venous thrombosis typically affecting young adults, acute sinusitis = common predisposing condition may have septic cause with a sinusitis spreading into cavernous sinus via sphenoid bone Presents with rapid onset, pt in septic state, CN III/IV/V1/V2/VI palsies (CN VI affected first as only true intra cavernous nerve) = ophthalmoplegia, absent corneal reflex, loss of upper facial & corneal sensation, Horner syndrome (mitosis, partial ptosis, facial anhidrosis) treat with LMWH & Abx
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Complete cord lesion
complete sensory & motor loss below the level of injury presents as flaccid, arreflexic paralysis below level of injury which may progress to spastic paresis, hyper reflexia & continued sensory loss may be temporary e.g. in spinal concussion
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Neurogenic shock
may present if a lesion is present in high thoracic or cervical spine above T6 leads to triad of hypotension, relative bradycardia, hypothermia but with flushed warm extremities
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Central cord syndrome
injury to central region of spinal cord (central corticopsinal tracts & decussating fibres of lateral spinothalamic tracts) most common incomplete spinal syndrome seen in cervical spondylosis presents in cervical lesions with motor weakness that is more pronounced in upper limbs than lower limbs + variable sensory loss with pain and/or temp sensation likely to be affected + burning sensation in upper extremities common
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Anterior cord syndrome
damage to anterior 2/3 of the cord usually due to occlusion of the anterior spinal artery presents with complete motor paralysis below lesion due to anterior horn cell & corticospinal tract involvement + loss of pain & temp sensation below lesion as spinothalamic tract involved + autonomic dysfunction (e.g. orthostatic hypotension) as anterior horn cells are damaged + bladder/bowel/sexual dysfunction
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Posterior cord syndrome
very rarely occurs in isolation, usually due to penetrating trauma presents with bilateral loss of proprioception, vibration & fine touch below lesion motor function & pain/temp sensation remains intact
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Brown-Sequard syndrome
hemicord syndrome due to hemisection of cord e.g. from penetrating trauma presents with ipsilateral loss of proprioception/fine touch/vibration sense below lesions as dorsal columns affected + ipsilateral UMN spastic paralysis below lesion due to lateral corticospinal tract involvement + ipsilateral loss of motor & sensory function just below lesion due to injury of ventral & dorsal grey matter + contralateral loss of pain & temp sensation due to damage to ascending lateral spinothalamic tracts (decussates 2-3 levels above respective dorsal root)
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Investigating spinal syndromes
MRI
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Managing spinal syndromes
neursurgical referal | maintain stability of spine & immobilise
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Cervical myelopathy/radiculopathy
cervical myelopathy: pressure/compression of spinal cord cervical radiculopathy: pressure/compression of cervical nerve root generally caused by degenerative cervical spinal disease & cervical spondylosis very common, incidence ↑ with age
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Presentation of cervical myelopathy/radiculopathy
cervical pain (worsened by movement) pain in shoulder/upper/lower limbs cervical stiffness poor balance numbness/tingling/weakness in upper/lower limbs hyporeflexia (radiculopathy as LMN lesion) hyperreflexia (myelopathy as UMN lesion) Hoffman's sign (to assess for cervical myelopathy. gently flick one finger on a patient's hand. A positive test = reflex twitching of the other fingers on the same hand)
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Hoffman's sign
is a reflex test to assess for cervical myelopathy. It is performed by gently flicking one finger on a patient's hand. A positive test results in reflex twitching of the other fingers on the same hand in response to the flick.
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Investigating cervical myelopathy/radiculopathy
``` cervical MRI (gold standard) cervical X-rays ```
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Management of cervical myelopathy/radiculopathy
conservative (for 3-4 weeks) surgical: decompressive surgery
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Degenerative disc disease/ spinal cord compression
refers to a variety of pathologies involving displacement of disc material into the spinal canal resulting in compression of the spinal cord or a nerve root very common, especially with ↑ age
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Most common site for spinal cord compression
L5-S1 followed by L4-L5
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Presentation of Degenerative disc disease/ spinal cord compression
lower back pain (acute onset) with stabbing electric shock like character, may radiate into arms/legs paraesthesia of affected dermatome & muscle weakness in myotome ± atrophy absent/hyporeflexia
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Conus medullaris syndrome
damage to spinal cord between T12-L2 leads to sudden bilateral symmetrical hyperreflexia of lower limbs, distal paresis, absent achilles reflex, symmetrical numbness with quite severe back pain early onset bladder/bowel incontinence, erectile dysfunction
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Cauda equina
compression of spinal cord below L2 (cauda equina) affecting nerve fibres from L3-S5 presents with bilateral sciatica lower back pain asymmetric flaccid paresis of legs saddle anaesthesia asymmetric numbness/paraesthesia in lower limbs ↓ anal tone late onset urinary retention & overflow incontinence
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Investigating Degenerative disc disease/ spinal cord compression
MRI spine straight leg raise test (pain radiating down the leg during test = positive for disc disease) Spurling manoeuvre (turning pts head to the affected side while extending and applying downward pressure to the top of the patient's head
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Management of Degenerative disc disease/ spinal cord compression
physiotherapy analgesia (NSAIDs) intravertebral corticosteroid injections surgery
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Syringomyelia
abnormal fluid filled cavity or syrinx develops within the central canal of the spinal cord due to disrupted CSF drainage from the central canal
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Aetiology of syringomyelia
Chiari malformation (most common cause >50%, cerebellum protrudes through foramen magnum) trauma, tumours, idiopathic, scoliosis
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Presentation of syringomyelia
often asymptomatic classic: cape/shawl distribution of dissociative sensory loss (i.e. loss of pain & temp control, but retained fine touch/vibration/propioception) spastic weakness paraesthesia neuropathic pain muscle atrophy
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Investigating syringomyelia
MRI spine & MRI brain
220
Management of syringomyelia
usually conservative management sufficient physio analgesia (NSAIDs, amitriptyline, gabapentin) Baclofen (for spasticity) surgery
221
Meningitis
an inflammation of the meninges in the brain or spinal cord which is most commonly caused by viral or bacterial infections but may also be due to fungal, parasitic or non infectious causes viral meningitis is more common & often more benign than bacterial meningitis
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Epidemiology of meningitis
can occur at any age most at risk are infants 2nd peak in teenagers & young adults
223
Risk factors for meningitis
``` young age immunosuppression smoking CSF shunts/dural defects crowding (e.g. student halls ↑ meningococcal meningitis) spinal procedures splenectomy/sickle cell ```
224
Aetiology of meningitis
Neonates: Group B strep (most common), E.coli, listeria Children & young adults: Neisseria meningitidis adults & elderly: strep pneumoniae Immunocompromised: Klebsiella, staph aureus viral causes: HSV & enteroviruses
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Presentation of meningitis
Classic triad of fever, headache, neck stiffness fever, headache, nausea&vomiting, lethargy, irritability, joint pain, muscle aches/pains, poor appetite photophobia, neck stiffness, altered mental state, coma Kernings sign (flex thigh at hip & extending knee in supine position = pain) rash (meningococcal rash)
226
Investigating meningitis
Blood cultures serum meningococcal/pneumococcal PCR FBC/U&Es/LFTs/ABG/coag/HIV screen/CRP/prolactin Lumbar puncture (only if no signs of ↑ICP)
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CSF in different meningitis
Bacterial: cloudy, ↑protein, ↓glucose, 10-5000 polymorphs/mm3 Viral: clear/cloudy, - protein, - glucose, 15-1000 lymphocytes/mm3 TB: fibrin webs, ↑protein, ↓glucose, 30-300 lymphocytes/mm3 Fungal: cloudy, ↑protein, ↓glucose, 20-200 lymphocytes/mm3
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Management of viral meningitis
no specific treatment acyclovir for HSV ganciclovir for CMV
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Management of bacterial meningitis
empirical Abx within 1h: generally IV cefotaxime/ceftriaxone ± amoxicillin (to cover listeria in infants & the elderly) Once organism identified meningococcal/pneumococcal/H.influenzae: IV cefotaxime/ceftriaxone Listeria: IV amoxicillin + gentamicin
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Encephalitis
an inflammation of the brain parenchyma associated with neurological dysfunction, it is the result of infectious or non-infectious causes meningoencephalitis is a combination of encephalitis & meningitis
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Aetiology of encephalitis
cause only identified in ~50% of cases, mainly viral causes Herpes simplex virus = most common identified pathogen (herpes complex encephalitis (HSE) = usually in temporal & inferior frontal lobes) bacterial causes are rare but include neurosyphilis
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Presentation of encephalitis
Classic triad of fever, headache, altered mental status often pts present with meningitis fever (fever, headache, photophobia, neck stiffness, vomiting) followed by altered consciousness, convulsions/seizures, focal neurological signs (aphasia, hemianopia, ataxia, tremors) Rash may be present behavioural changes (hypomania, hyper sexuality, agitation)
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Investigating encephalitis
LP & CSF analysis (lymphocytosis with normal CSF glucose, ↑protein, clear CSF) CSF PCR for HSV/VZV/enterovirus FBC/Blood smear/U&Es/LFTs CT/MRI head EEG (abnormal in >80% of pts)
234
Management of encephalitis
Empiric treatment should be started just like in meningitis if encephalitis is suspected prompt treatment with IV aciclovir (monitor for nephrotoxicity) usually empiric cover for meningitis given with IV cefotaxime/Ceftriaxone or IM benzylpenicillin (if GP)
235
Primary care empirical treatment for suspected meningitis
IM Benzylpenicillin + hospital transfer
236
Hepatic encephalopathy
Secondary to serve liver disease e.g. cirrhosis due to accumulation of neurotoxic metabolites especially ammonia (NH3) which causes cerebral oedema Presentation: fatigue, lethargy, altered level of consciousness, disorientation, irritability, memory loss, impaired sleep cycle, slurred speech, aberrant behaviour asterixs: liver flap, arrhythmic negative myoclonus Management: lactulose (1st line) rifaximin (2nd line/prophylaxis)
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Wernicke's encephalopathy & Korsakoff syndrome (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome)
Wernicke's is caused by thiamine deficiency most commonly seen in alcoholics (reversible with thiamine) presents with triad of nystagmus, confusion, ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, altered GCS, peripheral sensory neuropathy Korsakoff syndrome is chronic & irreversible, developing on top of Wernicke's due to chronic thiamine deficiency presents with confabulation, antero/retrograde amnesia, personality changes, hallucinations, confusion, disorientation ``` Treatments: thiamine replacement (pabrinex IV) & alcohol abstinence ```
238
Hydrocephalus
refers to abnormal enlargement of cerebral ventricles and/or subarachnoid space as a result of excess cerebrospinal fluid accumulation due to an imbalance of CSF production & absorption
239
Communicating hydrocephalus
or non-obstructive due to ↑CSF production or ↓CSF absorption in the absence of a CSF flow obstruction, leads to ↑ICP more common than obstructive hydrocephalus causes: infection, SAH, meningitis, choroid plexus papilloma ( ↑ production), idiopathic (1/3 cases in adults)
240
Non communicating hydrocephalus
or obstructive due to obstructed passage of CSF from ventricles to subarachnoid space, leads to ↑ICP causes: tumours, intraventricular haematoma, Chiari malformations
241
Normal pressure hydrocephalus
chronic form of communicating hydrocephalus occurring in older individuals (>60y/o) due to ↓CSF absorption but has normal ICP because of compensation for the slow accumulation by ventricular dilation
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Presentation of hydrocephalus
Features of ↑ICP headache (worse on bending over, coughing, in morning), nausea, vomiting, papilloedema, abnormal gait, impaired consciousness, abducens nerve palsy cushings triad (irregular breathing, hypertension (with wide pulse pressure), bradycardia) blurred vision, impaired upward gaze in infants (macrocephaly, bulging fontanelles)
243
Classic presentation of Normal pressure hydrocephalus
urinary incontinence dementia gait disturbance
244
Investigating hydrocephalus
CT/MRI head (pattern of ventricular enlargement helps define cause, may show underlying pathology e..g neoplasm) USS (especially in infants with open fontanelles)
245
Management of hydrocephalus
Medication to stabilise pt before surgery: acetazolamide, furosemide ``` surgery: extra ventricular drain (in severe cases, temporary) ventriculoperitoneal shunt (long term, diversion of CSF to peritoneum) ``` In communicating LP can be used to relief pressure acutely (NB do not do this in non communicating as this can lead to brain herniation)
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Red flags for headaches
``` sudden onset severe headache fever focal neurological deficits new headache age >50yrs progressive worsening headaches immunodeficiency seizures meningeal signs psychiatric symptoms failure to reason to analgesia visual deficits pregnancy/postpartum signs of ↑ICP confusion/impaired level of consciousness ```
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Tension type headache
Most common type of headache Types: - episodic: <15 days/month - chronic: >15days/month more frequently seen in females, peak incidence age 30-39 exacerbating factors: fatigue, lack of sleep, poor posture, anxiety, stress, depression
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Presentation of tension type headache
``` usually episodic headache lasting ~30min to a couple of days mild to moderate severity band like pressure/tightness dull pressing non pulsating quality generally bilateral & generalised ``` no aura/photophobia/phonophobia, not aggravated by exercise
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management of tension type headache
Episodic: NSAIDs, paracetamol, aspirin Chronic: TCAs e.g. amitriptyline avoid stress, lifestyle changes (e.g.g better sleep pattern)
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Migraine
2nd most common type of headache 3x more common in women Risk factors: family history, female sex, sleep disorders, obesity Triggers: stress, alcohol, nicotine, poor sleeping habits, weather changes, hormonal changes
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Presentation of migraines
``` usually unilateral headache severe throbbing in character (may progress to pounding/pulsating pain) lasting up to 72h exacerbated by physical activity ``` associated with photophobia, photophobia, nausea&vomiting 1/3 preceded by aura (typically visual/other sensory disturbance e.g. scintillating scotoma or flashing lights)
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Management of acute migraine
``` simple analgesia (NSAIDs, paracetamol, aspirin) ± antiemetics e.g. prochlorperazine, domperidone if not sufficient consider triptans e.g. zolmitriptan ``` NB menstrual migraine is treated with mefenamic acid
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Migraine prophylaxis
1st line: beta blockers e.g. propanolol (avoid in asthmatics) or topiramate (avoid in pregnancy) 2nd line: amitriptyline or sodium valproate 3rd line: pizotifen
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Cluster headache
also know as suicide headaches more common in men, peak incidence age 20-40 Risk factors: tobacco use, alcohol misuse, family history, male sex, head injury Triggers: alcohol, histamines, seasonal fluctuations
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Presentation of cluster headaches
strictly unilateral headache (always occur on same side) periorybital and/or temporal agonising pain, intense sharp/stabbing pain around eye generally short reoccurring attacks that happen in clusters lasting 4-12 weeks pain lasts 15min - 2h ipsilateral autonomic symptoms: conjunctival injections, lacrimation, rhinorrhoea
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Management of cluster headaches
Aute: 100% O2, triptans e.g sumatriptan Prevention: 1st line: verapamil 2nd line: prednisolone, lithium, melatonin, topiramate
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Medication overuse headache
one of the most common causes of chronic daily headache, generally considered a secondary headache caused by overuse of analgesia used to treat preexisitng chronic headache usually affects women aged 40-49 Presents with headache ≥15 days/month with tension like qualities, worse in morning. which develops/worsens whilst taking regular symptomatic medication treated with complete withdrawal of offending medication (resolving headache after withdrawal = indicative)
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Trigeminal neuralgia
Facial pain syndrome in the distribution of ≥1 divisions of the trigeminal nerve more common in females, Usually seen at age >40 yrs with peak at age 60-70 yrs generally caused by trigeminal nerve root compression by a loop of artery/vein
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Presentation of trigeminal neuralgia
unilateral facial pain: paroxysmal, severe, shooting.stabbing pain followed by a burning ache, lasts a couple of second (rarely >2min) and may occur up to 100x daily triggers may include vibrations, chewing, shaving, brushing tees or talking often associated with psychological distress
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Mangement of trigeminal neuralgia
1st line: carbamazepine 2nd line: gabapentin + regular ropivocaine injections or pregabalin 3rd line: botulinum toxin A Surgery: by removing compression or damaging nerve to prevent pain transmission
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Risk factors for brain tumours
inherited syndromes e.g. neurfibromatosis/tuberous sclerosis ionising radiation immunosuppression smoking
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Presentation of brain tumours
``` headache (worse in mornings/waking from sleep) nausea & vomiting cognitive & behavioural symptoms seizures papilloedema progressive focalneurolgical deficits ``` in children often failure to thrive
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Location of adult vs paediatric brain tumours
adult = mostly supratentorial children = mostly infratentorial
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Investigating brain tumours
Baseline bloods MRI/CT ± contrast technetium brain scan biopsy consider CT Chest/Abdo/Pelvis (to identify primary lesion)
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Management of brain tumours
Surgical removal radiotherapy chemotherapy corticosteroids (dexamethasone) to ↓ cerebral oedema & mass effect
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Metastatic brain cancer
most common for of brain tumour in adults ``` common origins: lung cancer (most common), breast cancer, malignant melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, colorectal carcinoma ``` frequently seen as multiple well circumscribed tumours consider surgery if ≤3 metastases & primary controlled otherwise stereotactic radiosurgery/chemo&radiotherapy
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Glioblastoma multiforme
most common primary CNS tumour in adults, associated with poor prognosis (~12 months), usually located in white matter of cerebral hemisphere, very aggressive tumour average age of diagnosis ~55yrs presents as solid tumour with central necrosis & rim that enhances with contrast treatment is surgical with post op chemo/radiotherapy
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Menigioma
2nd most common primary brain tumour in adults, slow growing extra axial tumour arising from arachnoid villi, causes symptoms of compression rather than invasion \ usually seen in pts aged >65yrs on imaging = well defined round tumour resembling a snow ball growing form the meninges usually found on fall cerebri, superior sagittal sinus or skull base (high recurrence rate) treated surgical generally
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Vestibular schwannoma/acoustic neuroma
bening tumour arising from schwann cells & primarily originate within the vestibular portion of CN VIII, frequently seen in cerebropontine angle but originally forms in internal acoustic canal usually unilateral presents with sensorineural hearing loss, facial nerve palsy, tinnitus, dizziness, unsteady gait, disequilibrium treatment = surgical removal + radiotherapy (NB small tumours may be active observed)
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Condition associated with bilateral acoustic neuromas
neurofibromatosis 2
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Pilocystic astrocytoma
most common primary brain tumour in children usually well demarcated cystic lesion on imaging with bright contrast enhancing nature surgical resection = treatment of choice
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Medulloblastoma
aggressive paediatric brain tumour derived from primitive neuroectodermal tissue most common malignant paediatric brain tumour, spreads via CSF (may see drop metastases in spinal cord) surgical resection ±adjuvant chemo
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Ependymoma
commonly seen in 4th ventricle, usually in children & young adults may cause non-communicating hydrocephalus
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Hemangioblastoma
rare benign vascular tumour of cerebellum associated with von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, highly vascular with little parenchyma
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Pituitary adenoma
benign tumour of pituitary gland that may be secretory or non-secretory, relatively common presents with symptoms of hormone excess e.g. acromegaly/cushings & bitemporal hemianopia (worse in upper quadrants)
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Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
also knows as pseudo tumour cerebri, is a disorder of ↑ ICP in the absence of a mass lesion or hydrocephalus classically affects young overweight/obese women of childbearing age, frequently in the context of weight gain
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Risk factors for Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
``` female sex obesity pregnancy sleep apnoea medications (COCP/POP, steroids, lithium) ```
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Presentation of Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
diffuse headache (generalised, throbbing, worst first thing in morning & last thing at night, relieved by standing, aggravated by coughing, straining) visual symptoms (gradual visual field defects, bilateral papilloedema, blurred vision) pulsatile tinnitus, drowsiness, N&V
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Investigations for Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
visual field testing opthalmoscopy MRI brain ± contrast LP (↑ opening pressure (>20cm H2O), normal CSF analysis)
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Management of Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH)
weight loss stop offending drugs Medications: 1st line: acetazolamide ± furosemide repeat LPs
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Meniere's disease
An auditory disease due to impaired endolymph resorption in the inner ear leading to ↑ pressure & progressive dilation of the endolymph system usually seen in middle age (40-50yrs)
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Presentation of Menieres disease
recurring episodes of acute unilateral symptoms lasting minutes to hours classical symptoms include tinnitus, peripheral vertigo, asymmetric fluctuating sensorineural hearing loss, sensation of aural pressure nystagmus, +ve Romberg's test
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Investigating Meniere's disease
audiometry (sensorineural hearing loss) | consider MRI brain
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Management of Menieres disease
must inform DVLA and seize driving until symptoms adequately controlled acute attacks: buccal/IM prochlorperazine/promethazine/cyclizine Prevention: betahistine & vestibular rehabilitation exercises
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Alzheimers disease
chronic neurodegenerative disease with insidious onset & progressive slow decline, involved progressive degeneration of cerebral cortex most common form of dementia
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Risk factors for Alzheimers
``` age ↑ FH of demenita low socioeconomic status diabetes obesity dyslipidaemia HTN CVD smoking alcohol consumption Down's syndrome ```
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Genetics related to Alzheimers
Amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene Presenilin 1 Presenilin 2 Apolipoprotein E (E2 = protective, E4 = ↑ risk of late onset dementia)
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Pathophysiology of Alzheimers
extracellular senile plaque (neuritic plaques) mainly from type-A beta amyloid intracellular neurofibrillary tangles made of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein ↓cholinergic function due to ACh deficiency secondary to cholinergic neurone degeneration
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Presentation of Alzheimers
slow insidious onset over 7-10 years with progressive decline characterised by language impairment (naming -> comprehension -> fluency) episodic memory affected first social facade maintained & certain skills retained e.g. hygiene
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Management of Alzheimers
CBT Therapies support groups Pharmacological: 1st line: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors e.g. donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine 2nd line: memantine (NMDA receptor antagonist) antidepressants
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Vascular dementia
gradual cognitive decline cause by small/large vessel disease (CVD), a group of syndromes of cognitive impairment caused by ischaemia/haemorrhage 2nd most common form of dementia NB rare inherited form with CADASIL
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Vascular dementia
gradual cognitive decline cause by small/large vessel disease (CVD), a group of syndromes of cognitive impairment caused by ischaemia/haemorrhage 2nd most common form of dementia NB rare inherited form with CADASIL NB worse prognosis than alzheimers
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Presentation of vascular dementia
abrupt cognitive decline & stepwise deterioration of cognitive function may also present with focal neurological deficits or seizures early presence of disrupted gait, unsteadiness, frequent unprovoked falls
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Presentation of vascular dementia
abrupt cognitive decline & stepwise deterioration of cognitive function may also present with focal neurological deficits or seizures early presence of disrupted gait, unsteadiness, frequent unprovoked falls
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Management of vascular dementia
general person centred care no specific pharmacological treatment treat cardiovascular risk factors
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Lewy body dementia
clinical syndrome of progressive cognitive decline, characterised by inclusion bodies made of alpha-synuclei protein found intracytoplasmically often co-exists with Alzheimers 3rd most common form of dementia
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Presentation of lewy body dementia
progressive cognitive impairment with early impairment of attention & executive function rather than just memories like in Alzheimers fluctuating course of cognitive impairment Parkinsoninsm (bradykinesa, rigidity, poverty of facial expression, impaired gait) visual disturbances, sleep disorders
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Management of lewy body dementia
general pt entered care & therapy avoid neuroleptics (may develop irreversible parkinsonism) Pharmacological e.g. acetylcholineesterase inhibitors e.g. donepezil/rivastigmine or memantine
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Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)
progressive neurodegenerative disease of the frontal & temporal lobes, with atrophy following a lobar distribution, characterised by intracellular inclusion bodies (Pick bodies) due to mutations in Tau protein Subtypes include: frontotemporal dementia (Pick's disease) Progressive non-fluent aphasia (chronic progressive aphasia) Somatic dementia typically younger onset than Alzheimers i.e. <65yrs
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Presentation of Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)
onset usually <65yrs insidious onset & gradual progression (quicker progression than Alzheimers) relatively preserved memory & visuospatial skills early changes in personality & behaviour, often presenting as inability to adhere to social etiquette
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Management of Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)
SSRIs for behavioural symptoms atypical antipsychotics for serve behavioural disturbance dementia drugs e.g. AChE inhibitors or memantine are not recommended
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Neuromyelitis optica
immune mediated chronic inflammatory disorders primarily affecting optic nerve & spinal cord, a demyelinating & necrotising disease more common in asian population onset age 40-60
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Presentation of neuromyelitis optica
closely resembles MS recurrent attacks with stepwise degeneration & deterioration but no progression between attacks optic neuritis (often bilateral), impaired vision, retrobulbar pain, transverse myelitis (symmetric paraplegia, sensory loss, bladder dysfunction) Investigations: serology for antiaquaporin 4 (AQP4) +ve MRI head/spine (normal cranial nerve but optic nerve & spinal cord lesions)
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Management of neuromyelitis optica
high dose corticosteroids plasmapheresis if severe immunotherapy
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Spinocerebellar ataxia
group of progressive neurodegenerative diseases of genetic origin, mostly inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion (generally due to trinucleotide expansion) SCA3 most common type world wide
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Presentation of spinocerebellar ataxia
cerebellar ataxia (progressive gait ataxia leading to broad based gait, progressive limb ataxia, dysarthria, tremors, explosive speech, intention tremors, dysdiadochokinesia, dysmetria, nystagmus) ocular dysfunction CLINICAL diagnosis
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Friedreich ataxia
autosomal recessive disorder involving a trinucleotide expansion (GAA repeat on chromosome 9) leading to progressive neurodegeneration and also effects the heart most common inherited ataxia in UK age of onset age 8-15
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Presentation of Friedreich ataxia
progressive ataxia (impaired coordination of muscles) of all limbs gait ataxia, action & intention tremor of arms spastic paralysis nystagmus dysarthria bladder dysfunction hearing loss optic atrophy impaired proprioception & vibration sense loss of deep tendon reflexes scoliosis & foot deformities concentric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
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Investigating Friedreich ataxia
``` trinucleotide expansion assay ECG (ventricular hypertrophy, T-Wave inversion) Echo (hypertrophy) MRI brain & spinal cord Nerve conduction studies ```
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Creutzfeldt-Jakob diese (CJD)
neurodegenerative condition caused by misfolded protein particles (prions), very rare presents with dementia (rapid onset), myoclonus, myoclonic jerk, cerebellar disturbances, ataxia, seizures, autonomic nervous dysregulation
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Insomnia
difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep or early morning awakening that leads to dissatisfaction with sleep quality or quantity thought to affect ~1/3 of the population causes include poor sleep hygiene, subclinical mood/anxiety disorders acute <3 months chronic ≥3 months
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Presentation of insomnia
↓ daytime functioning ↓ periods of sleep (delayed onset/awakening at night) non-restorative sleep daytime napping
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Risk factors for insomnia
``` female gender older age chronic pain/medical conditions alcohol/substance misuse poor sleep hygiene life stresses stimulant use ```
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Investigating insomnia
``` history Epworth sleepiness scale Pittsburgh sleep quality index sleep diary TFTs polysomnogaphy ```
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management of insomnia
sleep hygiene (fixed bed times, no screentime before bed, no stimulants/alcohol 4-6h before bed, regular exercise) CBT Pharmacological: benzos (short acting e.g. temazepam) Z drugs e.g. zopiclone, zolpidem melatonin (prolonged release)
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Narcolepsy
neurological disorder of the sleep-wake cycle that effects control of sleep & wakefulness with rapid eye movement intrusion into wake state may occur with or without cataplexy (sudden loss of muscle tone & power in response to strong emotions) onset usually in adolescence
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Presentation of narcolepsy
``` excessive daytime sleepiness (hypersomnolence) cataplexy sleep paralysis hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations automatic behaviour chronic fatigue/tiredness poor memory & concentration ```
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Investigating narcolepsy
actigraphy & sleep diary overnight polysomnography Hepworth sleepiness scale EEG
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Management of narcolepsy
must inform DVLA & only drive if symptoms sufficiently controlled advice good sleep hygiene strategic daytime naps Pharmacological: daytime stimulates e.g. modafenil (1st line), methylphenidate (2nd line) SSRIs for sleep paralysis & hallucinations nightime sodium oxybate (1st line for cataplexy)
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Parasomnias
undesirable sleep related events that may occur during sleep or during transition into/out of sleep
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sleepwalking disorder
NREM related parasomnia characterised by walking/performing other activities during first 1/3 of sleep cycle
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Sleep terror disorder
NREM related, occurring in NJ sleep take (slow-wave sleep) characterised by episodes of sleep terrors, causes extreme panic, loud screams & movements with sudden arousal
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Nightmare disorder
REM sleep related, characterised by recurrent nightmares, with complete alertness & recall of dream on waking
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REM sleep behaviour disorder
REM-sleep related, chracterised by dream enactment due to loss of REM sleep atonia, usually seen in older pts
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Restless leg syndrome
constant involuntary irritation of legs causing movement on retiring to bed leading to insomnia
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Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV)
peripheral vestibular disorder manifesting as sudden short lived episode of vertigo elicited by specific head movements, thought to be due to dislodging of otoconia which migrate into one of the semicircular canals disrupting endolymph dynamics one of the most common causes of vertigo commonly presents around age 50
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Presentation of BPPV
episodic vertigo (spinning sensation): sudden (paroxysmal) recurring attacks, lasting several seconds (<1 min) triggered by certain head movements nystagmus, N&V, falls Triggers include: lying down/standing up, rolling over in bed, bending forwards
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Investigating BPPV
provoking manoeuvres : Dix-Hallpike manoeuvre (positional vertigo + nystagmus triggered) upbeat nystagmus = posterior canal downbeat nystagmus = anterior canal
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Treating BPPV
Epley manoeuvre generally self limiting over several weeks
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Delirium
a neurocognitive disorder characterised by impairments in attention & awareness as well as other cognitive disturbances very common especially in elderly subtypes: - hypoactive: apathy & quiet confusion present - hyperactive: agitation, delusion, disorientation prominent - mixed
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Predisposing factors of delirium
``` Age >65 background of dementia significant injury e.g. NOF frailty multimorbidty polypharmacy male sex substance/alcohol misuse ```
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Aetiology of delirium
``` acute infection (UTIs & pneumonia) metabolic states (e.g. hyper/hypoglycaemia, dehydration) severe pain constipation postoperative ```
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Presentation of delirium
``` acute alteration in level of awareness & attention hallucinations cognitive deficits emotional lability agitation confusion combativeness abnormalities in sleep wake cycle ``` fluctuating course
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Investigating delirium
``` Bloods (FBC/U&Es/LFTs/TFTs/Vit B12/Folate/CRP) urine dipstick urine MC&S blood cultures CXR ECG ```
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Management of delirium
treat underlying cause environmental modifications pharmacological (haloperidol or olanzepine)
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Glasgow coma scale Eye component
``` out of 4 4 = spontaneous opening 3 = opening to voice 2 = opening to pain 1 = no response ```
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Glasgow coma scale verbal component
``` out of 5 5 = orientated response 4 =confused response 3 = random words 2 = random sounds 1 = no response ```
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Glasgow coma scale motor component
``` out of 6 6 = obeys command 5 = purposeful movements to pain 4 = withdraws from pain 3 = flexor response (decorticate) 2 = extensor response (decerebrate) 1 = no response ```
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CT head injury within 1h criteria
``` GCS <13 initially GCS <15 at 2h post injury suspected open/depressed skull fracture signs of basal skull fracture post-traumatic seizure focal neurological deficits >1 episode of vomiting ```
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CT head injury within 8h criteria
adults with retro/anterograde amnesia or some LOC with the following risk factors: (age >65, history of bleeding/clotting disorder, dangerous mechanism of injury, >30min retrograde amnesia of events just before head injury) pt on warfarin even if no other indication
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Upper motor neuron (UMN) lesion
lesions of the descending motor pathways usually the anterior horn cells Muscle appearance: absent atrophy, absent fasciculations characteristics : central paresis (spastic paresis): inability to voluntarily move muscles + hypertonia, spasticity, clonus, hyperreflexia, ↓power in muscle groups upgoing (positive) babinksi sign detrusor hyperreflexia Aetiology: MS, tumours, stroke, ALS
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Lower motor neuron (LMN) lesion
lesions anywhere along the nerve fibres between anterior horn of spinal cord & relevant muscle tissue Muscle appearance: atrophy & fasciculations ``` characteristics : peripheral paresis (flaccid paresis): inability to voluntarily move muscles + hypotonia, hyporeflexia/areflexia, ↓power in single muscle fibre downgoing (negative) babinksi sign overflow incontinence ``` Aetiology: peripheral neuropathies, ALS
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Horner syndrome
a neurological disorder charcterised by a symptoms triad of miosis, partial ptosis, facial anhidrosis & enopthalmos
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Facial nerve palsy
partial or complete CN VII dysfunction aetiology: idiopathic (if acute unilateral facial nerve plays = Bells palsy (most common in pregnant women), LMN palsy) trauma, HZV, sarcoidosis, acoustic neuroma, HIV, stroke Presentation: LMN palsy: ipsilateral paralysis of all facial muscles UMN palsy: contralateral forehead sparing paralysis both present with mouth drooping, dry mouth, ↓ lacrimation
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Broca's aphasia (motor/expressive aphasia)
lesions to Broca's area in inferior forntal gyrus results in non fluent speech telegraphic & grammatically incorrect speech impaired repetition comprehension largely spared pt typically aware of deficit & frustrated by it
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Wenicke's aphasia (sensory/receptive aphasia)
lesion to Wernicke's area in superior temporal gyrus results in fluent speech that lacks sense (word salad, paraphasic errors, neologisms) comprehension impaired impaired repetition as well as impaired reading & writing pt typically unaware of deficit
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Conduction aphasia
lesions to arcuate fasciculus in parietal lobe mostly intact comprehension & fluent speech production impaired repetition with paraphasia (pt substitutes sounds & try to correct their own mistakes)
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Global aphasia
lesions to Broca's & wernicke's & arcuate fasiculus non fluent speech severe impairment of speech production & comprehension pt may be mute & only utter sounds inability to comprehend speech
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Prechiasmal lesions of optic tract
produce an ipsilateral field deficit in one eye often effect visual acuity causes include optic neuritis, optic atrophy, glaucoma, trauma
350
Chiasmal lesions
typically cause bitemporal hemianopia if lesion spreading from above e.g. cranipharyngioma then worse in lower quadrants if lesion spreading from below e.g. pituitary tumour then worse in upper quadrants
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Retrochiasmal lesions
produce homonymous (matching) defects lesions on right optic tract will cause lesion in left visual field and vice verca
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Lesion to main optic radiation/optic peduncle
e.g. MCA stroke causes homonymous hemianopia without macular sparing
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Lesions to temporal radiation
upper quadrant homonymous hemianopia
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Lesions to parietal radiation
inferior quadrant homonymous hemianopia
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Lesions to anterior visual cortex
e.g. PCA occlusion contralateral homonymous hemianopia with macular sparing
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differentiating between organic and non-organic lower leg weakness
Hoover’s sign This is based on the concept of synergistic contraction. If a patient is genuinely making an effort, the examiner would feel the 'normal' limb pushing downwards against their hand as the patient tries to lift the 'weak' leg. Noticing this is indicative of an underlying organic cause of the paresis. If the examiner, however, fails to feel the 'normal' limb pushing downwards as the patient tries to raise their 'weak' leg, then this is suggestive of an underlying functional weakness, also known as 'conversion disorder'.
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Prophylaxis for contacts of pts with meningococcal meningitis
Prophylaxis = oral ciprofloxacin
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Essential tremor
Essential tremor (previously called benign essential tremor) is an autosomal dominant condition which usually affects both upper limbs postural tremor: worse if arms outstretched, tremor is better at rest most common cause of titubation (head tremor) treatment: reduce caffeine intake, propranolol or primidone
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Complications of subarachnoid haemorrhages
Vasospasm ~ 7-14 days after SAH SIADH (hyponatraemia)
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Treatment of subarachnoid haemorrhage
Nimodipine (to prevent vasospasm) Interventional radiology to treat aneurysms (within 24h due to high rebleeding risk) transfer to specialist centre within 24h labetolol for tight BP control
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Side effects of ergot derived dopamine agonists
bromocriptine or cabergoline associated with pulmonary/cardiac/retroperitoneal fibrosis
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Most common cause of viral encephalitis
Herpes simplex virus
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Most common cause of viral meningitis
Enteroviruses e.g. cocksackie