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CSD 508 > Neurobiology Test 1 > Flashcards

Neurobiology Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

dorsal

A

posterior. usually represents the back

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2
Q

ventral

A

anterior. in humans, its our stomach

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3
Q

rostral

A

top. its our head in humans

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4
Q

caudal

A

bottom. its our feet in humans

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5
Q

sagital

A

cut face so it’s left and right

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6
Q

coronal

A

cut head so it’s face and back of head

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7
Q

horizontal

A

cuts so there is a top and bottom

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8
Q

what are the planes in the brain stem?

A

transverse (slightly angular) and cross (completely horizontal)

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9
Q

what are the limb movements?

A

flexion (arm up), extension (arm down), supination (twist arm out), pronation (twist arm in), abduction (bring leg out to the side), adduction (bring leg in)

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10
Q

anatomic orientation

A

left to right

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11
Q

clinical orientation

A

right to left

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12
Q

contralateral

A

lateralization that is opposite to something
timulation of the left side of the body activate
the right side of the cortex & visa versa
• Motor commands from the left cerebral cortex
are sent to the right side of the body

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13
Q

decussation

A

the spot where it switches from the right side to the left side and vice versa

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14
Q

Breakdown of the Nervous System

A

CNS (Central nervous system) and PNS ( peripheral nervous system)

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15
Q

Breakdown of the Central Nervous System

A

Somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary)

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16
Q

Breakdown of Autonomic Nervous System

A

Sympathetic (fight or flight. Arise from thoracic & lumbar nerves of spinal cord) and Parasympathetic (anti fight or flight. Arise from brainstem & sacral (S2-S4) regions of spinal cord. Courses in sacral spinal nerves and certain cranial nerves in the brainstem)

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17
Q

Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)

A

Serves higher mental functions (cognition, language, and memory); integrates sensorimotor functions and perceptual experiences

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18
Q

thalamus

A

Channels sensorimotor information to cortex. Participates in cortex-mediated functions. Regulates crude awareness of sensation

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19
Q

hypothalamus

A

Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, hormonal secretions, emotional behavior, and sexual responses. Controls the activities of autonomic nervous system.

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20
Q

cerebellum

A

Participates in the coordination of skilled movements and regulation of equilibrium

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21
Q

midbrain

A

Mediates auditory and visual reflexes. Regulates cortical arousal. Houses cranial nerve nuclei

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22
Q

pons

A

Contains cranial nerve nuclei and sensory motor- regulating fibers

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23
Q

medulla

A

Contains cranial nerve nuclei. Regulates respiration, phonation, heartbeat, and blood pressure

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24
Q

spinal cord

A

links body with central nervous system & regulates reflexes

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25
Q

telencephalon

A

cerebral hemispheres; embryonic structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally.

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26
Q

brainstem

A

medulla, pons, midbrain

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27
Q

hindbrain

A

Brainstem + cerebellum

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28
Q

diencephalon

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus & subthalamus

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29
Q

forebrain

A

diencephalon + telencephalon

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30
Q

neocortex

A

6 layers of cells in the cerebral cortex

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31
Q

allocortex

A

3 layers of cells & include hippocampus, septal region, cingulate gyrus & parahippocampal gyrus.

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32
Q

basal ganglion

A

Regulates cognitive motor functions & muscle tone

• Consist of 4 nuclear masses: caudate nucleus, putamen, claustrum & globus pallidus

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33
Q

damage basal ganglion

A

• Damage results in inappropriate behavioral & movement patterns because of disinhibition (e.g., Parkinson disease,
Huntington disease , Tourette syndrome, Wilson disease & Sydenham chorea)
• Basal ganglion lesions do not cause paralysis, but cause involuntary movements, such as tremor, chorea (jerky movements),
ticks & Ballism (violent flinging movements)

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34
Q

brainstem reticular formation

A

The reticular formation is a group of diffusely localized nuclei that are entangled in a network of fibers.
• Reticular neuronal circuits inhibit, facilitate, modify & regulate all cortical functions
• It also integrates all sensorimotor stimuli with internally generated thoughts, emotions & cognition.
• It also maintains the homeostatic state of the brain (e.g., hormones, etc.)

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35
Q

cerebellar peduncles

A

Cerebellum: coordinates & regulates smooth muscle/motor activities
Peduncles: allow information into and out of cerebellum
superior peduncle: info allowed out
inferior: info from spinal cord and also from inferior olivary (cortex)
middle peduncle: allows info from cortex
The peduncles are how the cortex/spinal cord can coordinate movement
Page 24 pictures

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36
Q

meninges

A

Membranes (n=3) that covers and protects the neurosis
duramater, arachnoid, and pia mater
page 25 pictures

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37
Q

Sensory aspect of autonomic nervous system

A

It receives constant sensations from visceral organs, monitors carbon dioxide in the blood & senses smooth muscle stretching (internal organs & blood
vessels)

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38
Q

motor aspect of autonomic nervous system

A

controls motor activity of smooth & cardiac muscles, such as lungs, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, eyes & heart
It also regulates the secretion of glands to produce: salivation, sweating, lacrimation (tears) as well as gastric, intestinal & pancreatic glands.
The motor component consist of the sympathetic & parasympathetic systems, which monitor, regulate & sustain optimum visceral functions essential for surviva

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39
Q

different kinds of ganglion

(pictures on pg 26

A

Pre (myelinated/fast) vs post-ganglion (nonmylinated/slow)

Parasympathetic ganglion is closer to organ Sympathetic ganglia innervates many organs while parasympathetic ganglia innervates a single organ

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40
Q

Sympathetic spinal cord activation

A

T1-L3

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41
Q

Parasympathetic spinal cord activation

A

S2-S4
edinger-westphal nucleus
superior and inferior salivary nucleus
dorsal nucleus

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42
Q

pituitary (master) gland

A

Master endocrine system of the CNS.
• It maintains body homeostasis
• It controls various glands & tissues by secreting hormones & chemical messengers
• The anterior lobe is called
adenohypophysis & the posterior lobe is the neurohypophysis
• The hypothalamus can regulate the function of this gland by releasing hormones in the hypothalamic hypophyseal portal (blood) circulation

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43
Q

pituitary gland hormones

A 
GH-growth hormones 
TSH-thyroid-stimulating hormones 
ACTH-adrenocorticotropic hormone 
FSH-follicle stimulating hormone 
LH-luteinizing hormone 
MSH-melanocyte stimulating hormone
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44
Q

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A

Serves to: supply nutrients to nervous tissues, removes waste & is a mechanical barrier to cushion the brain & spinal cord against trauma.
• A filtrate of blood but the blood brain barrier restricts entry of blood cells, large protein complexes & lipids, therefore CSF does not resemble blood (clear fluid)
• Choroid plexus & ependymal cells produce CSF & the arachnoid granulations absorb it into the venus to maintain balance
• CSF is found in the ventricles & subarachnoid space.

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45
Q

choroid plexus

A

invaginated in the ventricles, the pia-capillary network responsible for secreting the CSF.

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46
Q

ventricular (CSF cavity) system of the CNS

picture on 30

A

lateral ventricles: cerebral hemispheres
inter ventricular foramen
third ventricle: diencephalon
cerebral aqueduct
fourth ventricle: pons and upper medulla
central canal: lower medulla and spinal cord

The shapes of the ventricular cavity & descending corticospinal (motor) fibers are two distinct anatomical landmarks that can be used to grossly determine where you are within the CNS

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47
Q

neuronal structure

A

has 3 general parts: dendrite, cell body & axon

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48
Q

dendrite

A

allows information to enter the cell (afferent/receptive) & travel to the cell body
• Have spines (red in fig) that increase the surface area for synaptic contacts

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49
Q

cell body or soma

A

allows for the entry of info (with or without the dendrite), the transmission of info & the integration & processing of info
• Composed of nucleoplasm & cytoplasm
• Nucleoplasm = DNA, chromatin, RNA (e.g., mRNA), nuclear bodies (e.g., nucleolus) & proteins
• Cytoplasm = RNA (rRNA), proteins, nucleotide pools & organelles: mitochondrioa, ribosomes, lysosomes, rough & smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, etc.

50
Q

axon

A

transmit information from the soma to other cells (efferent/transmissive)
• Axons originate at a cone shaped region called the axon hillock (initial segment)
• Axons are sometimes wrapped by another type of cell called an oligodendrocyte (CNS) or Schwann cell (PNS). This wrapping (lipids) is white and is called
myelin
• Myelin protects the axon & facilitates the fast transmission of electrical signals along the axon by preventing the escape of ions
(except at the nodes of Ranvier)

51
Q

synapse

A

Allows for the local transfer of information (usually chemical) between cells (e.g., b/w axon & dendrite of 2 cells)
• Composed of presynaptic terminal (vesicles & boutons), synaptic cleft & postsynaptic cell area
• Nerve impulses/electrical activity triggers the release of vesicles in the synaptic cleft so that the postsynaptic cell
can retrieve the chemical signal

52
Q

types of neurons

A

multi-polar, bi-polar, unipolar

There are many types of neurons with various morphological configurations
• There are many ways to classify types of neurons, e.g., morphology, function, chemical composition, location, etc.
• Below is an example based on morphology (number of dendrites & axons)
• Additional morphological typing is Golgi Type: Type-I has a long axon (inches to feet) while Type-II has short axons

53
Q

neuron supporting cells (satellite cells)

A

Located everywhere neurons are located
• They support & protect nerve cells
• The most abundant types of cells in the nervous system (40-50 fold more than neurons)
• Examples in the CNS (Neuroglial Cells ) = astrocytes (transmission of substances across blood vessels), oligodendroglia
(forms myelin), microglia (garbage collector/killer) & ependymal (lines the ventricular cavity)
• Examples in the PNS = Schwann cell

54
Q

communication: electrical

A

chemicals naturally want to move down their concentration gradient and voltage shifts occur across membranes from positive to negative, which are called oscillations
pg 39

55
Q

storage and retrival process

A

Genes Structure

structure
• Neurons their circuits & •

function
Circuit dynamics their connectivity • Cognition, perception & motor
functions
56
Q

storage and retrieval process cont.

A

genome to transipnome to proteome to metabolome to elementary functions and structures

57
Q

the environment and plasticity

A

the environment can change the storage and function of the gene

58
Q

basic principles of plasticity

A

The brain is composed of clusters of neurons that form neural circuits (black circles)
Neural circuits are connected to other spatially distinct neural circuits through fiber tracks (black lines) and other neural circuits
Large-scale functional systems may then develop from the combination of neural circuits
Synchronous activation of
spatially distinct neural circuits or functional systems drives sensory, motor and cognitive brain functions
Environmental stimulations are necessary for refining neural circuits and the larger functional systems
Redundancy is a key feature of the brain. One neural circuit may connect with another via multiple pathways.

59
Q

connectivity and the environment

A

if there is a lesion or short circuit, the brain can fix itself autonomously or with therapy

60
Q

nucleus

A

(pl. nuclei): mass of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system (CNS)

61
Q

tracts

A

a bundle of parallel axons with a common point of origin & termination

62
Q

Fasciculus

A

(pl. fasciculi, funiculi): several tracts

63
Q

ganglion

A

(pl. ganglia): collection of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

64
Q

neuron

A

a single cell

65
Q

nerve

A

a bundle of neurons

66
Q

spinal cord

A

The spinal cord is located within the spinal canal but does not extend the entire length of the canal.
• The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to the lumbar (lower back) region of the spinal canal.
• The spinal cord is the major conduit through which sensory & motor info travels between brain & body

67
Q

spinal cord segments and boundary lines

A

The spinal cord has 31 segments (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal).
• There are no sharp boundaries between the segments within the cord.

68
Q

spinal cord length

A

The spinal cord length is about 45 cm in men and 43 cm in women and its width ranges from 1.27 cm in cervical and lumbar regions to 64 mm in the thoracic region.

69
Q

cervical segment

A

-located in neck -C1 to C8

70
Q

thoracic segment

A

-located in chest -T1 to T12

71
Q

Spinal Plexus

A

different spinal segments working together (5 Major ones). Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal (last one not very relevant) plexuses.

72
Q

Cervical Plexus

A

(C1-C5) supplies head, neck, and shoulders; contains phrenic nerve

73
Q

Brachial Plexus

A

(C5-T1) supplies chest, shoulders, arms, and hands; contains radian, median, and ulnar nerves (complex neural network formed by lower cervical and upper thoracic ventral nerve roots which supplies motor and sensory innervation to upper limb and pectoral girdle located in neck, extending to axilla posterior to clavicle)

74
Q

Lumbar Plexus

A

(L1-L4) supplies back, abdomen, and lower limbs; contains femoral nerve

75
Q

Sacral Plexus

A

(L4-5, S1-4) supplies skin & muscles of pelvis, genitals, buttocks and lower limbs; contains sciatic nerve

76
Q

Phrenic Nerve

A

mixed (sensory/motor) nerve (C3-C5) that innervates the diaphragm (cervical plexus)

77
Q

Radian Nerve

A

provides motor and sensory innervation to arm & forearm and sensory innervation to hand (brachial plexus)

78
Q

Median Nerve

A

one of five main nerves originating from brachial plexus and provides motor and sensory innervation to parts of forearm & hand

79
Q

Ulnar Nerve

A

mixed nerve that supplies innervation to muscles in forearm & hand and provide sensation over the medial half of the 4th digit and entire 5th digit and ulnar portion of the posterior aspect of the hand (brachial plexus)

80
Q

Femoral Nerve

A

located in pelvis & leg, helps muscles move the hip and straighten the leg, provides feeling (sensation) to front of thigh & part of lower leg (lumbar plexus)

81
Q

Sciatic Nerve

A

largest single nerve in human body, runs from each side of lower spine through deep in the buttock into back of thigh and down to foot, vital role in connecting SC with leg and foot muscles (sacral plexus)

82
Q

stimulus

A

produces Action potential

83
Q

Electric Communication “code”

A

the amount of action potentials in a time tells neuron what to do (frequency or rate coding)

84
Q

Chemical Communication

A

neurotransmitters for short range communication

diffusible signaling molecules for long range communication

85
Q

Chemical Communication “code”

A

volume of chemical tells neuron what to do (also the type of neurotransmitter)

86
Q

Paracrine

A

From structure to brain

87
Q

Endocrine

A

from structure to structure

88
Q

Autocrine

A

cell regulates its own function by producing its own signaling molecule that affects its own receptors

89
Q

Molecular Communication

A

after gene creates protein, it’s modified in some way, the post translational modification affects the cell’s receptors so they can communicate
This synaptic dialogue continues long after stimulus has gone and is then called rehearsal

90
Q

Pruning

A

in the absence of stimulus over time, there’s a loss of circuits

91
Q

Expansion

A

provides for multiple neural representations of the stimulus
ensure survival of the original circuit
endogenous

92
Q

Redundancy

A

key feature of the brain, one neural circuit my connect with another via multiple pathways, this allows for recovery of function (after damage)

93
Q

Five Conceptual Function of the SC

A
  1. Afferent (sensory)
  2. Interneuron (decode/encode)
  3. Efferent (motor)
    (1-3: reflex)
  4. input to the brain
  5. executes commands from the brain
94
Q

Reflex

A

Can go directly through SC, brain not necessary

Ex: touch hot potato and drop it (reflex) or try to override reflex and hold onto it (now brain is involved)

95
Q

Spinal Cord Ends

A

at approx the L1-L2 vertebral level

96
Q

Conus Medullaris

A

most bulbous part of SC

97
Q

Cauda Equina

A

horse-like collection of nerve roots at end of spinal cord

formed from the lumbrosacral roots below termination of the SC

98
Q

Filum Terminale

A

where tapering of SC occurs

99
Q

Gray Matter

A

latitudinal aspects of SC
composed of neuronal cell bodies
responsible for either receiving or sending info via spinal roots and nerves

100
Q

Spinal Roots

A

either afferent or efferent nerve bundles that enter or leave the SC
each SC segment (except C1) has dorsal and ventral roots and a pair of spinal nerves

101
Q

Intervertebral foramina

A

where each dorsal and ventral root joins to form a spinal nerve

102
Q

Accessory Nerve

A

(XI Cranial Nerve)
composed of 2 parts
Cranial part arises from nucleus ambiguus in brainstem
Spinal part arises from ventral horn between C1 and C5

103
Q

Dorsal/Posterior Roots/Nerves

A

afferent (sensory) nerves carry info to SC

occurs at Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral regions

104
Q

Fasciculus Cuneatus

A

afferent track of nerves that transmit info from above waist

105
Q

Fasciculus Gracilis

A

afferent track of nerves that transmit info from below the waist

106
Q

Denticulate ligament

A

part of pia mater, serves to protect and provide stability to SC

107
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglion

A

the oval enlargement of the dorsal root (contains sensory neurons), is located outside the SC, proximal to its junction with ventral root

108
Q

Sensory Ganglia neurons

A

pseudo-unipolar nerve cells

109
Q

Dorsal Root Fiber types

A 
largest afferent fibers (1a and 1b): heavily mylienated, conduct afferent limb of muscle stretch reflexes and carry info from muscle spindles
medium-sized fibers (A-beta): convey impulses from mechanoreceptors in skin and joints (e.g. touch)
small fibers (A-delta, thinly mylienated and C-type, unmylienated) convey noxious and thermal sensations (pain/temp)
110
Q

Myotome

A

Descending and Motor

111
Q

Corticospinal tract

A

body and limb movement (largest and most important descending tract) (extends all the way down to sacral)

112
Q

Rubrospinal tract

A

flexor movement and upper limb (extends to lumbar)

113
Q

Vestibulospinal tract

A

extensor and antigravity muscles (extends to lumbar)

114
Q

Reticulospinal tract

A

muscle preparedness (extends to sacral)

115
Q

tectospinal tract

A

reflex head turning (extends to cervical)

116
Q

Dermatome

A

Ascending and Sensory

117
Q

Gracile Fasciculus

A

touch, pressure, proprioception from BELOW the waist (extends up from sacral)

118
Q

Cuneate Fasciculus

A

touch pressure, proprioception from ABOVE the waist (extends up from thoracic)

119
Q

Spinothalamic tract

A

pain, temperature, and gross touch (extends up from sacral)

120
Q

Spinoreticular tract

A

emotional reaction to and memory of pain (extends up from lumbar)

121
Q

Spinocerebellar tract

A

proprioception and coordination of smooth movements (extends up from thoracic)

CSD 508 (1 decks)

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