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Neurology > Neuroanatomy > Flashcards

Neuroanatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up the CNS

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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2
Q

What makes up the PNS

A

The peripheral nerves

12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches

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3
Q

Where does the CNS become the PNS

A

As the spinal nerve roots leave the spinal cord

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4
Q

How does the nervous system develop

A

Begins as the neural tube
Brain is hollow and fluid filled
Early on 3 swellings form
The bottom 2 will further divide to give 5 ‘vesicles in the neural tube
Each section will become a specific section of the brain

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5
Q

Name the 5 major embryonic divisions of the brain

A 
Telencephalon
Diencephalon 
Mesencephalon 
Metencephalon 
Myelencephalon
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6
Q

What does the telencephalon go on to form

A

the cerebral hemispheres

This expands massively in human development

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7
Q

What does the diencephalon go on to form

A

The thalamus and the hypothalamus

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8
Q

What does the mesencephalon go on to form

A

The midbrain

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9
Q

What does the metencephalon go on to form

A

The pons and the cerebellum

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10
Q

What does the myelencephalon go on to form

A

The medulla oblongata

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11
Q

What sections make up the brainstem

A

The midbrain
Pons
Medulla

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12
Q

What are the functions of the neurons

A

They receive information, integrate it and then transmit it in the form of the electrical impulses
Can pass to it onto other neurons or effector cells

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13
Q

Describe the structure of neurons

A

They have a cell body that contains the nucleus and cellular apparatus
They have numerous dendrites to receive info
One axon will transmit info - can be extremely long

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14
Q

Does the brain contain connective tissues

A

Nope

A small amount comes in with the blood vessels but doesn’t count

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15
Q

What are the main types of glial cells

A

Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells

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16
Q

What are the functions of astrocytes

A

Roles in supporting the brain, maintaining the BBB and homeostasis

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17
Q

What is the structure of an astrocyte

A

Star shaped cells

Multiple processes

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18
Q

What is the function of the oligodendrocytes

A

Produce myelin in the CNS

They reach out to nearby axons with multiple branches and wrap layers of cell membrane around it

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19
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath

A

Increases rate of signal transmission

Allows signals to jump along the axon from node to node (node is an unmyelinated area)

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20
Q

What is the function of microglia

A

Immune cells - immune monitoring and antigen presentation

Similar to macrophages but they stay in the CNS

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21
Q

What is the function of the ependymal cells

A

Ciliated cuboidal/columnar epithelium that lines the ventricles.
They produce the CSF

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22
Q

What is the difference between the gyri and sulci

A

Gyri are the bits that stick out and the sulci are the indentations

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23
Q

What are the deepest sulci called

A

Fissures

There are around finger depth

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24
Q

What are the two types of brain tissue

A

Grey matter and white matter

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25
Q

Describe the grey matter

A

covers the outside of the brain
Contains the neuron cell bodies and lots of glial cells
There is also some deep grey areas within the centre of the brain

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26
Q

Describe the white matter

A

forms the core
There are no nerve cell bodies in here but the axons extend into it
Lots of glial cells

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27
Q

Describe the organisation of grey and white matter in the spinal cord

A

Grey is on the inside in a H like shape - with posterior/dorsal and anterior/ventral horns
White matter organised in columns around it - posterior/dorsal, lateral and anterior/ventral

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28
Q

What is found at the precentral gyrus

A

Primary motor area

Found in front of the large central sulcus

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29
Q

What is found at the postcentral gyrus

A

The somatosensory area of the brain

Found behind the central sulcus

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30
Q

Is the thalamus a grey or white structure

A

Grey

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31
Q

What does the calcarine sulcus mark the edge of

A

The visual cortex

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32
Q

What is the corpus callosum

A

A band of white matter that separates the 2 hemispheres

Connecting point between them so millions of axons cross here

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33
Q

The central sulcus forms the boundary between which lobes

A

Frontal and parietal

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34
Q

Where is the frontal lobe found

A

anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral sulcus.

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35
Q

Where is the parietal lobe found

A

posterior to the central sulcus, superior to the lateral sulcus and anterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus

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36
Q

Where is the occipital lobe found

A

posterior to a line from the parieto-occipital sulcus to the preocciptial notch.

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37
Q

Where is the temporal lobe found

A

inferior to the lateral sulcus and anterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus line

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38
Q

What is the insular lobe

A

Hidden 5th lobe of the brain – under the temporal
Very important – involved in pain
Close to brain stem

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39
Q

What are the layers of the meninges

A

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
(subarachnoid space with CSF)
Pia mater

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40
Q

What connects the lateral ventricles to the 3rd

A

Intraventricular foramen

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41
Q

What connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles

A

Cerebral aqueduct

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42
Q

How does CSF leave the 4th ventricles

A

Through the apertures

Enters the spinal cord and subarachnoid space

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43
Q

Describe the enteric nervous system

A

Found in digestive system from oesophagus to rectum
Neurons found largely in two plexuses in the walls of the gut (myenteric and submucosal)
Contains same number of neurons as spinal cord

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44
Q

Describe the blood supply to the brain

A

Comes from the vertebral arteries which become the basilar artery at the pons
This joins the 2 internal carotids to form the circle of Willis
The anterior and middle cerebral arteries arise from the carotids
The posterior comes from the basilar

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45
Q

Describe the venous drainage of the brain

A

It drains into a system of dural venous sinuses - intercavernous and cavernous
They then drain into the internal jugular vein through the jugular foramen

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46
Q

What is a ganglion

A

Small group of neuron bodies in the PNS

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47
Q

What are the two main types of neurones

A

Unipolar and multipolar

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48
Q

Describe multipolar neurones

A

Those with 2 or more dendrites
Most common - includes all motor neurons for skeletal muscle and ANS
Cell body is found in the CNS

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49
Q

Describe unipolar neurones

A

Do technically have a double process - so also called pseudounipolar
Cell body is in the PNS
Sensory neurones

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50
Q

What forms a nerve

A

Collections of axons surrounded by connective tissue and blood vessels

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51
Q

What is a single modality nerve

A

Only carries one type of fibre

e.g. motor, sensory, sympathetic etc

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52
Q

What is a mixed modality nerve

A

where several types of axon lie together in one nerve

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53
Q

Where are the spinal nerves found

A

ONLY in the intervertebral foramina

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54
Q

What do the spinal nerves connect with

A

Structures of the soma via the rami

The spinal cord segment of the same level via the roots and rootlets

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55
Q

The roots and rootlets are mixed modality - TRUE OR FALSE

A

FALSE
Roots/rootlets – single modality
Spinal nerve – mixed modality

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56
Q

Describe the path of sensory axons

A

pass from the spinal nerve into the posterior root then into the posterior rootlets then into the posterior horn of the spinal cord

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57
Q

Describe the path of motor axons

A

They pass from the anterior horn of the spinal cord into the anterior rootlets then into the anterior root then into the spinal nerve

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58
Q

What does each spinal nerve pair supply

A

They provide a specific body segment with general sensory to all structures, somatic motor to all skeletal muscles and a sympathetic nerve supply to the skin and smooth muscle of arterioles

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59
Q

What is a dermatome

A

Area of skin supplied with sensory innervation from a single spinal nerve
Also supplies some deeper structures

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60
Q

What is a myotome

A

The group of skeletal muscles supplied by one spinal nerve - motor innervation
May be the same as the overlying dermatome but not always

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61
Q

What are the thoracic dermatome landmarks

A

T4 segment is the nipple line

T10 segment is the umbilicus

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62
Q

Which nerves supply the dermatomes of the upper limb

A

C5-T1

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63
Q

Which nerves supply the dermatomes of the lower limb, gluteal and perineum

A

L2- Co1

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64
Q

What forms the cervical plexus and what does it supple

A

C1-C4 anterior rami

Supplies the posterior scalp, neck and diaphragm

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65
Q

What forms the brachial plexus and what does it supply

A

C5-T1 anterior rami

Upper limb

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66
Q

What forms the lumbar plexus and what does it supply

A

L1-L4 anterior rami

Supplies the lower limb

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67
Q

What forms the sacral plexus and what does it supply

A

L5-S4 anterior rami

Supplies the lower limb, gluteal region and perineum

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68
Q

Which vertebral levels do the sympathetic nerves arise from

A

the lateral horns of T1 - L2

Pass out through the anterior rootlets/roots

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69
Q

Describe the path of sympathetic fibres that supply the heart

A

Presynaptic axons synapse in T1 or cervical paravertebral ganglia
Postsynaptic axons pass in cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves to the SA & AV nodes & the myocardium

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70
Q

Describe the path of sympathetic fibres that supply the lungs

A

Presynaptic axons synapse in upper thoracic paravertebral ganglia
Postsynaptic axons pass in cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves to the bronchiolar smooth muscle & mucous glands

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71
Q

Describe the path of sympathetic fibres that supply the abdominopelvic organs

A

Presynaptic axons synapse in one of the prevertebral ganglia: coeliac ganglion for the foregut, aorticorenal for kidneys, superior mesenteric for midgut and inferior mesenteric for hindgut and pelvis

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72
Q

Where do the parasympathetic nerves originate from

A

Presynaptic axons have cranial sacral outflow - CN III, VII, IX and X and the sacral spinal nerves

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73
Q

What do parasympathetic fibres from the vagus nerve supply

A

Organs of the neck, chest and abdomen as far as the mid-gut

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74
Q

Where do the parasympathetic fibres for the eye synapse

A

Ciliary ganglion

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75
Q

Where do the parasympathetic fibres for the lacrimal and salivary glands synapse

A

Parasympathetic ganglia in the head

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76
Q

What do parasympathetic fibres from the sacral spinal nerves supply

A

Hindgut, pelvis and perineum

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77
Q

What causes Horner’s syndrome

A

Compression of the cervical parts of the sympathetic trunk

This decreases sympathetic innervation to the head and neck

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78
Q

What are the symptoms of Horner’s syndrome

A

Miosis - pinpoint pupil
Ptosis - droopy eyelid
Reduced sweating (anhydrosis)
Increased warmth and redness - due to vasodilation

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79
Q

What are the spinal enlargements

A

Enlargements in the spinal cord that supply the limbs

Therefore there are 2 - cervical and lumbar

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80
Q

What forms a spinal nerve root

A

A series of rootlets emerge from either the dorsal or ventral part of the spinal cord
They come together to form either an anterior or posterior root

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81
Q

What type of fibres do the anterior roots carry

A

Motor fibres

Travel away from the spinal cord

82
Q

What type of fibres do the posterior roots carry

A

Sensory fibres

Bring information into the spinal cord

83
Q

Describe the path of the spinal roots

A

Pass through the subarachnoid space until they reach the appropriate intervertebral foramina
As the posterior one passes through it is enlarged by the dorsal root ganglion
Will go on to fuse and become the spinal nerve for that level

84
Q

What is the tip of the spinal cord called

A

Conus medullaris

85
Q

What is the filum terminals

A

A cord like continuation of the conus medullaris which anchors the spinal cord to the spine (at the coccyx)

86
Q

What is the denticulate ligament

A

Ribbon of tissue on the lateral aspect of the spinal cord
Formed by pia and arachnoid tissue
Suspends the cord within the canal

87
Q

The spinal cord is also surrounded by the meninges - TRUE OR FALSE

A

TRUE

It is continuous with the cranial meninges and includes all 3 layers

88
Q

What comprises the grey matter in the spinal cord

A

Neuronal soma, cell processes, synapses, glia and blood vessels.

89
Q

What comprises the white matter in the spinal cord

A

Longitudinally oriented nerve fibres (axons), glial cells and blood vessels

90
Q

The spinal cord has a canal in the centre - TRUE OR FALSE

A

TRUE
Its a very small canal that extends the entire length
It is continuous with the 4th ventricle and so contains CSF

91
Q

How is the white matter of the spinal cord organised

A

Into the anterior, lateral and posterior columns

92
Q

There is an extra horn of grey matter at which spinal levels

A

From T1 to L2

This lateral horn contains the preganglionic sympathetic neurons

93
Q

Describe the arterial supply to the spinal cord

A

3 main sources:
3 major longitudinal arteries run the length (1 anterior and 2 posterior)
Segmental arteries that come from the vertebral, intercostal and lumbar ones
Radicular arteries which travel along the roots

94
Q

what happens if the blood supply to the spinal cord is occluded

A

Spinal cord infarction

95
Q

Describe the venous drainage of the spinal cord

A

Follows similar patterns to arteries as there are longitudinal and segmental veins

Plexuses are found in the epidural space

96
Q

What is the epidural space

A

The space between the dura and the bone in the spinal canal

It contains adipose tissue and epidural venous plexuses

97
Q

Right side of the brain receives sensation from the right side of the body - True or False

A

FALSE

sensory fibres cross at the midline so brain receives sensation from the opposite side of the body

98
Q

What happens to white matter as you travel down the cord

A

Less and less white matter as you travel down the cord as the fibres start leaving to supply the appropriate areas

99
Q

What are the descending spinal cord tracts responsible for

A

Motor functions

100
Q

What are the ascending spinal cord tracts responsible for

A

Sensory function

101
Q

Describe the path and function of the dorsal column

A

Carries sensation of fine touch and proprioception up to the brain
They fibres travel up the cord and synapse in the medulla at the nucleus gracillus
The second order neuron crosses the midline to the pons where it synapses again in the thalamus
Third order leaves thalamus and goes into the cerebrum

102
Q

What is the function of the spinothalamic tract

A

Transmits pain, temperature and deep pressure to the brain

103
Q

Describe the path of the spinothalamic tract

A

1st order arises from sensory receptors in periphery which enter the cord and synapse at tip of the dorsal horn
The second neurone crosses to the white matter on the opposite side where it then travels ups the cord to the brain where it synapses again at the thalamus
The third neurone takes this to the primary sensory cortex

104
Q

What is another name for the spinothalamic tract

A

Antero-lateral tract

105
Q

What are the divisions of the dorsal column

A

Cutaneous and gracilis
The gracilis carries the information from the leg (graceful)
The cutaneous carries the arm information

106
Q

What is the function of the corticospinal tract

A

Control of fine, precise movement
Conscious and voluntary
Particularly in the distal limb - e.g. fingers

107
Q

What is another name for the corticospinal tract

A

Pyramidal tract

108
Q

Where do the fibres of the corticospinal tract cross

A

Most cross at the decussation of the pyramids in the medulla
This forms the lateral CST

The ones that don’t cross form the ventral CST which will cross at the segment that it leaves the spinal column

109
Q

List the extra-pyramidal tracts

A

Tectospinal
Reticulospinal
Rubrospinal
Vestibulospinal

110
Q

What is the function of the tectospinal tract

A

Thought to coordinate head and neck movement in response to visual stimuli.

111
Q

Describe the path of the tectospinal tract

A

Begins in the tectum of the midbrain
This area gets input from the optic nerves
Travels down to the cervical region and terminates

112
Q

List the pyramidal tracts

A

Corticospinal

Corticobulbar

113
Q

What is the function of the corticobulbar tract

A

Help carry motor signals to the muscles of the face and neck
Supplies the cranial nerves nuclei with motor fibres

114
Q

Describe the path of the corticobulbar tracts

A

Arise in lateral aspect of primary motor cortex
Pass through internal capsule of brainstem
Terminate in the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves where they synapse with motor neurons to carry the signal

115
Q

What is the function of the vestibulospinal tracts

A

Control balance and posture by innervating the anti-gravity muscles
(arm flexors, leg extensors)
Control head and neck movements

116
Q

Describe the path of the vestibulospinal tracts

A

They arise from the vestibular nuclei of pons and medulla - medial and lateral
The tracts travel down the spinal cord where they stay ipsilateral
medial tract stops ay cervical cord to control head and neck movement
Lateral goes down to lumbar to control posture

117
Q

What is the difference between the lateral and medial reticulospinal tracts

A

Lateral arises in medulla, inhibits voluntary movement and reduces muscle tone

Medial tract arises from the pons, facilitates voluntary movements and increases muscle tone

118
Q

What is the function of the rubrospinal tract

A

Thought to play a role in fine hand movement

Controls limb flexors (excites) and inhibits extensors

119
Q

Describe the path of the rubrospinal tract

A

Originates in the red nucleus in the midbrain
As they emerge from here, they cross and descend the spinal cord
Terminate in the ventral horn
Contralateral innervation

120
Q

What is Brown-Sequard syndrome

A

Occurs after hemi-section of the spinal cord
Occurs with penetrating wounds
Interrupts 1 side of the tracts
Will get weakness and paralysis on same side as injury
Loss of fine sensation on same side as injury
Opposite side will see a reduction in pain/temp

121
Q

Describe the gross anatomy of the cerebellum

A

Has 3 lobes: anterior, posterior (largest) and flocculonodular lobe (has ‘ears’)
Sits in the posterior cranial fossa under the tentorium cerebelli
Attached to brain stem via 3 stumps of white matter (peduncles) which have fibres that carry info in and out

122
Q

what are the gyri called in the cerebellum

A

Folia

123
Q

What are the deep cerebellar nuclei

A

Areas of grey matter embedded deep within the white matter core
Important for communication

124
Q

What are the 3 layers of the cerebellum

A

Molecular layer on outside – huge number of synapses
Purkinje cell layer in the middle (giant cells)
Granule cell layer on inside (stuffed full of neurones)

125
Q

From where does the cerebellum receive afferent projections

A

Spinal cord - from somatic proprioceptors and pressure receptors
The cerebral cortex
Vestibular apparatus

126
Q

Describe the path and function of the efferent projections of the cerebellum

A

Axons from the Purkinje cells are the only output
Synapse with neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei
The fibres then cross and synapse in the thalamus before travelling to the motor cortex

They contribute to coordinating the functions of all the motor tracts

127
Q

Cerebral hemispheres influence the contralateral side of the body - true or false

A

FALSE

Influence the ipsilateral side so will cause symptoms in the same side

128
Q

What effect would a midline cerebellar lesion have

A

Disturbance of postural control

Person will fall when standing or sitting but will still have coordination in limbs

129
Q

What effect would a unilateral cerebellar lesion have

A

Disturbance of coordination in the limbs
Tremor, unsteady gait
NO weakness or sensory loss

130
Q

What effect would a bilateral cerebellar lesion/dysfunction have

A

Slowed, slurred speech
Bilateral loss of coordination in the limbs
Cerebral ataxia - wide based, staggering gait

131
Q

What are the functions of the basal ganglia

A

Facilitates purposeful movement
Inhibits unwanted movement
Role in posture and muscle tone

Acts as an amplifier of small amounts of activity within the motor cortex - direct
A second pathway will dampen signals in the thalamus to reduce cortex response - indirect

132
Q

Name the 5 area that make up the basal ganglia

A 
Caudate nucleus 
Putamen 
Globus pallidus 
Subthalamic nucleus 
Substantia nigra
133
Q

Which areas make up the striatum

A

Caudate nucleus

Putamen

134
Q

Which areas make up the corpus striatum

A

Caudate nucleus
Putamen -
Globus pallidus

135
Q

Which areas make up the lenticular nucleus

A

Putamen
Globus pallidus
(looks like a lentil)

136
Q

What are the basal ganglia

A

A number of masses of grey matter located near the base of each cerebral hemisphere

137
Q

Where is the caudate nucleus found

A

In the floor of the lateral ventricles - follows the horns

138
Q

What is released from the substantia nigra

A

Dopamine

139
Q

Which condition is a result of reduced dopamine secretion from the substantia nigra

A

Parkinson’s disease

140
Q

Unilateral lesions in the basal ganglia will affect the opposite side of the body - true or false

A

TRUE

141
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of a basal ganglia lesion

A 
Change in muscle tone 
Dyskinesia - abnormal or involuntary movement 
Tremor 
Chorea - rapid, asymmetrical movement 
Myoclonus - muscle jerks
142
Q

What causes Huntington’s Disease

A

Autosomal dominant gene

Leads to progressive degeneration of the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex

143
Q

Where do the motor components of a cranial nerve come from

A

They are associated with motor nuclei

These are groups of efferent nerves that send axons into the cranial nerve

144
Q

Where do the sensory components of a cranial nerve come from

A

Associated with sensory nuclei

These are groups of nerve cells upon which the sensory neurons of the cranial nerves synapse

145
Q

Where is the olfactory nerve found

A

Fibres pass through the cribriform plate up to the bulb
Passes straight back to the olfactory cortex
Only sensory nerve that doesn’t go to the thalamus first

146
Q

Which type of cranial nerve has its nuclei in the midline

A

Motor ones

Sensory ones are further out

147
Q

Which cranial nerve arises from the superior colliculus

A

Oculomotor - CNIII
Provides somatic motor innervation to eye muscles
Parasympathetic innervation to the ciliary body

148
Q

Which cranial nerve arises from the inferior colliculus

A

Trochlear - CNIV

Innervates superior oblique

149
Q

Which cranial nerve is the only one to exit posteriorly

A

Trochlear

It moves backwards then rotates out the way

150
Q

Which cranial nerve arises from the abducens nucleus

A

Abducens - CNVI

151
Q

Where does the hypoglossal nerve arise from

A

A large motor nucleus that starts at pons and goes down through medulla

152
Q

Which cranial nerves arise from the midline

A

CNIII - Oculomotor
CNIV - Trochlear
CNVI - Abducens
CNXII - Hypoglossal

153
Q

Which of the cranial nerves actually arises from the spinal cord

A

CNXI - spinal accessory nerve

Comes from the accessory nucleus in the ventral horn of the cervical spinal cord

154
Q

Which cranial nerve sensory nuclei is the trigeminal nerve associated with

A

Spinal nucleus - in spinal cord, linked to ST tract and receives pain and temperature Pontine Trigeminal nucleus - found in pons and receives touch and vibration
Mesencephalic nucleus - receives proprioception from oral cavity

155
Q

What are the functions of the facial nerve

A

Motor to muscles of facial expression and stapedius
Parasymp to pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia
Taste to anterior 2/3 of tongue

156
Q

What are the functions of the glossopharyngeal nerve

A

Tactile sense, pain and temp from posterior tongue and pharynx
Taste to posterior 1/3
Parasymp to the otic ganglion - parotids
Motor to the stylopharyngeus

157
Q

What are the functions of the vagus nerve

A

Tactile sense, pain and temp from pharynx, larynx, trachea, oesophagus and abdominal organs
Taste - epiglottis
Parasymp to thoracic and abdominal viscera

158
Q

Which nuclei is the facial nerve associated with

A

Facial motor nucleus - motor fibres from here
Salivatory nucleus - submandibular ganglion
Solitary nucleus - sensory and taste
Some sensory fibres go to trigeminal spinal nucleus

159
Q

Which nuclei is the glossopharyngeal nerve associated with

A

Solitary nucleus - receives taste fibres
Spinal trigeminal nucleus - small region of sensation
Nucleus ambiguous - controls stylopharygeus for swallowing
Inferior salivatory nucleus

160
Q

Which nuclei is the vagus nerve associated with

A

Dorsal motor nucleus - parsymp outflow
Solitary nucleus - taste
Spinal trigeminal - pain and small sensory area
Nucleus ambiguous - motor

161
Q

Where is the solitary nucleus found

A

Starts in the pons and goes down to the medulla

V-shaped

162
Q

What is the function of the solitary nucleus

A

Taste and general visceral sensation

Associated with CN VII, IX and X

163
Q

Where do the parasympathetic efferents to CN originate

A

Input is mainly from the hypothalamus which sends efferents to the preganglionic autonomic neurons

164
Q

What is the reticular formation

A

A network of loosely linked nuclei in the brainstem
It integrates cranial reflexes, conducts and modulates pain, influences voluntary movement and regulates autonomic activity
It integrates respiration and sleep - if this fails you die

165
Q

Describe the auditory pathway

A

Starts in the organ of corti
Neurons go the spiral ganglion
Then pass to the cochlear nuclei - ventral and dorsal
Some fibres will decussate here whilst other remain on the same side - bilateral input from here
Neurons that go from the ventral will go through the superior olivary nucleus before travelling up the lateral lemniscus
Those from dorsal go straight to the lateral lemniscus
Both sets synapse in the inferior colliculus
From there they go into the thalamus and enter the medial geniculate nucleus
Travel from here to the cortex

166
Q

The auditory pathway has bilateral input - true or false

A

TRUE
Some fibres cross and other don’t - input comes from both sides
If deaf in one ear it cannot be an issue in the brain

167
Q

What structure allows us to localise sound

A

Olivary nucleus

It does this by comparing the timing of sound reaching the left and right ears

168
Q

Where is the primary auditory cortex found

A

The superior aspect of the temporal lobe

169
Q

Describe how the auditory cortex is organised

A

Tonotopically
Fibres relaying low frequency sounds end in the anterolateral region of the cortex whilst high frequency end in the posteromedial part

170
Q

How is the cochlea organised

A

Tonotopically

Tip of the cochlea responds best to low frequency and the base to high frequency

171
Q

What is aphasia

A

The inability to use language

Different types due to inability to produce language yourself or unable to comprehend it

172
Q

What happens if there is damage to Wernicke’s area

A

Patient’s cannot comprehend language
This can present with words out of order or meaningless words

Called Wernicke’s, sensory or receptive aphasia

173
Q

What happens if there is damage to Broca’s area

A

Patient will struggle to produce language (e.g. will only say a few out of a sentence)
Can still understand language

Called Broca’s, motor or expressive aphasia

174
Q

How are vestibular signals created

A

Fluid movement in the semi-circular canals of the inner ear

This moves hair cells which creates the signal

175
Q

Describe the path of vestibular signals

A

Fibres gather in the vestibular ganglion - swelling in the vestibular body
Then synapses in vestibular nuclei either side of the brainstem
Signals are then delivered to many areas of the cortex and cerebellum as they have many functions

176
Q

Describe the path of the optic nerve

A

Travel back from the eye
Cross at the chiasm
The tract first synapses at the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus
The 2nd order neurones project back to the occipital lobe
The ones carrying the upper half of the visual field have to loop around the lateral ventricle in Meyer’s loop

177
Q

Describe how signals from the optic nerves cross

A

The fibres cross at the chiasm
Therefore each tract, lateral geniculate nucleus, optic radiation and visual cortex deals with the contralateral visual field

178
Q

What is the role of visual input to the superior colliculi

A

Branches from the optic tracts supply it with information to help aim our eyes
Responsible from some visual reflexes

179
Q

Describe the locations of the optic radiations

A

Lower visual field is projected to the gyrus superior to the calcarine sulcus
Upper visual field is projected to the inferior

180
Q

Describe the macula’s designated area of the cortex

A

proportionally much larger than the area of the eye dedicated to the macula
Larger cortex area means it gives higher acuity

181
Q

How does the visual cortex influence eye movement

A

Provides for movements in response to visual stimuli

Tracking movements - smooth sweeping movements

182
Q

What is the difference between eye movements controlled by visual cortex and the frontal eye fields

A

Visual cortex controls tracking movements which are smooth and sweeping
Frontal fields are movements of commands - jumpy

183
Q

Which nucleus is involved in the pupillary light reflex

A

The EW nucleus

It activates neurones in both eyes to cause consensual reflex

184
Q

Which nucleus is involved in the accommodation reflex

A

The EW and oculomotor reflex

Both are needed to converge gaze and constrict pupils

185
Q

Do people have a dominant hemisphere

A

To some extent
For some higher functions one side will take the lead
E.g. most right handed people will be left hemisphere dominant for language

186
Q

What are association fibres

A

Fibres in the white matter that connect cortical sites in the same hemisphere

187
Q

What are the commissural fibres

A

Fibres in the white matter that connect one hemisphere to the other - usually between areas of similar function

188
Q

What are projection fibres

A

Fibres in the white matter that connect the hemispheres to deeper structures such as the thalamus, brain stem and spinal cord

189
Q

What controls the corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts

A

Cerebral cortex

Called the lateral pathways

190
Q

Describe the path of the corticospinal tract

A

Cell bodies found in the motor cortex and parietal
Fibres travel through the internal capsule and reach the junction between medulla and cervical spinal cord
Some cross at the pyramids, some don’t - forms lateral and ventral tracts
The fibres end up in the dorsolateral area of the ventral horn

191
Q

What happens if there is a lesion in the corticospinal tract or rubrospinal tract

A

Loss of fractioned movement - cant move shoulder, elbow and wrist independently
Slower, less accurate movement
Posture maintained

192
Q

What happens if there is a lesion in the corticospinal tract but rubrospinal tract is spared

A

Will have motor deficits such as slower, less accurate and loss of fractioned movement
But sparing the rubrospinal means there is a chance of recovery

193
Q

What areas does the lateral corticospinal tract control

A

Motor control of the limbs and digits

194
Q

What areas does the anterior/ventral corticospinal tract control

A

Motor control of the trunk and maintains posture

195
Q

When is facial sparing seen

A

In lesions/disease of the upper motor neurons

196
Q

Which of the spinal tracts is dominant

A

Corticospinal

Rubrospinal is second most dominant

197
Q

What happens if there is a lesion in the corticospinal tract in terms of dominance

A

The rubrospinal will take over and the upper limb will flex

198
Q

Which spinal tracts are ascending tracts

A

DCML

Spinothalamic

199
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe

A

Executive function - decision making etc

Personality

200
Q

The T10 sensory dermatone is at which anatomical landmark

A

Umbilicus

201
Q

What is the vermis

A

A midline structure in the cerebellum which s concerned with the maintenance of axial (midline) posture and balance

Neurology (18 decks)

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