Neuroanatomy Flashcards
Forebrain
3 structures
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- basal ganglia
thalamus
(part of sensory, motor, and cognitive networks)
contributes to … (2x)
through its role in … (1)
- alertness
- attention
- activating the cerebral cortex
Thalamic nuclei involved in memory processing …(2x)
Lesions of nuclei …(2x)
- anterior nucleus
- dorsomedial nucleus
- impaired encoding/learning
- impaired retrieval
Hypothalamus (=chronic inpatient)
regulates… (2x)
such as …(3x)
- homeostasis drive
- physiological drives
- appetite
- sexual arousal
- thirst
hypothalamus lesions (2x)
- autonomic dysregulation
- endocrine dysregulation
hypthalamus includes (1x)
mammillary bodies
mammillary bodies
are involved in … (2x)
- memory encoding
- memory consolidation
basal ganglia
includes (5x)
- caudate
- putamen
- globus pallidus
- subthalamic nucleus
- substantia nigra
basal ganglia
regulates (2x)
- speed
- timing
of movements
lesions in basal ganglia (1x + 4x)
- dyskinesias resting tremor bradykinesia rigidity chorea
basal ganglia
has major role in (2x)
- executive functioning (i.e. regulating various cognitive functions)
- procedural learning
Midbrain
includes (4x)
- part of RAS
- motor pathways
- superior colliculi (visual processing pathways)
- inferior colliculi (auditory processing pathway)
midbrain lesions (1x)
- altered consciousness (if RAS damaged)
hindbrain
structures (3x)
- pons
- cerebellum
- medulla
pons
runs b/w xxx and xxx
lesions cause (1)
- cerebral cortex + cerebellum
- cerebellar signs
cerebellum
regulates (2x)
- coordination of fine movements
- maintaining posture
cerebellum lesions (1x +3) + (1x)
- ataxias
action tremor (poor fine-motor coordination)
balance difficulties
jerkey eye movements
- disrupt cognitive functions
medulla (= vegetable)
regulates …(1x +3)
- basic life-maintaining functions
respiration
blood pressure
heartbeat
lesions in medulla (3x)
- death
- coma
- altered consciousness
Limibic system
consists of (3x) + their location
- anterior cingulate cortex (medial frontal lobe)
- hippocampal formation (temporal)
- amygdala (temporal)
anterior cingulate cortex
is located in (1x)
medial frontal lobes
anterior cingulate cortex
contributes to (1x + 2x)
- executive functioning
- response selection
- directed attention
anterior cingulate cortex
is part of … (1x)
papez circuit (memory encoding + consolidation)
white matter tracts (2x) + what they do
- commissures (corpus callouss + anterior commissure) - send signals b/w hemispheres
- association fibers - send signals b/w 2 regions in same hemisphere
left hemisphere specialization
1 + 4 examples
- linear/sequential processing
logical reasoning
solving a math problem
comprehending the meaning behind a sequence of words
analyzing the component details of a construct
right hemisphere specialization
1 + examples
configurational processing
integrating component parts to understand the “big picture”
integrating information with the context in which the information is presented
integrating spoken words with the speaker’s tone of voice
perceiving the spatial layout of component parts
Right hemisphere involvements in language processing:
Integrating spoken words with speaker’s tone of voice and/or gestures to comprehend emotion being communicated
Integrating spoken words with contextual information to comprehend non-literal meaning behind what was said
Regulating prosody of speech
left hemisphere lesions
- contralateral spastic hemiparesis (motor+premotor cortex)
- deviation of eyes to ipsilateral side (frontal eye fields)
- expressive, nonfluent, Broca’s aphasia (Broca’s area 44)
- deficits in concentration, orientation, abstract reasoning, judgment, problem-solving (prefrontal cortex)
- frontal lobe syndrome (inappropriately. social bx, loss of initiative, release of sucking and grasping reflexes, gait apraxia, incontinence)
- contralateral hypesthesia and stereognosis (sensory cortex)
- contralateral stereognosis and sensory neglect (superior parietal lobule)
- Gerstmann syndrome (right/left confusion, finger agnosia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia) [inferior parietal lobule]
- receptive, fluent, Wernicke’s aphasia (superior temporal gyrus)
- ideational apraxia (Wernicke’s area)
- ideomotor apraxia (Wernicke’s area)
right hemisphere lesions
- contralateral spastic hemiparesis (motor+premotor cortex)
- deviation of eyes to ipsilateral side (frontal eye fields)
- deficits in concentration, orientation, abstarct reasoning, judgment, problem-solving (prefrontal cortex)
- frontal lobe syndrome)
- contralateral hemihypesthesia and stereognosis (sensory cortex)
- contralateral astereognosis and sensory neglect (superior parietal lobule)
- topograhic memory loss (inferior parietal lobule)
- anosognosia (inferior parietal lobule)
- construction apraxia (inferior parietal lobule)
- dressing apraxia (inferior parietal lobule)
- contralateral sensory neglect (inferior parietal lobule)
- contralateral hemianopia or lower quadrantanopia (inferior parietal lobule)
Longitudinal organization of the cerebral cortex
Posterior aspects of the cortex (behind the central sulcus) are dedicated to
input systems (sensation and perception).
Longitudinal organization of the cerebral cortex
Anterior aspects of the cortex function as
output systems (execution of behavior)
occipital lobes
visual pathway (3x)
- retina
- lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
- primary visual cortex
Occiptal lobe
One side of the xxx processes information from the contralateral xxx
- primary visual cortex
- visual field
Lesions of the primary visual cortex result in
discrete blind spots (bilaterally: cortical blindness)
Lesions of the visual association cortex result in
visual agnosias
Visual agnosias do not involve xxx, but what the person visually xxx (the xxx) lacks certain aspects of xxx visual information, such as xxx, xxx of the visual percept, xxx/xxx of the visual percept
- blindness
- visually perceives
- percept
- meaningful
- object identity
- movement
- spatial location/orientation
Visual associative agnosias involve inability to xxx any xxx associated with a visual xxx – essentially, it is not knowing what something is or who someone is despite being able to see that object or person clearly.
Results from lesions to xxx at the xxx.
- retrieve
- knowledge
- visual percept
- visual association cortex
- ventral occipitotemporal lobes
Visual apperceptive agnosias involve inability to xxx the xxx of a visual xxx together. Results from damage to xxx of the xxx that is very close to xxx.
For example, movement of the visual percept or spatial location/orientation of the visual percept.
- bind
- details
- visual percept
- visual association cortex
- occipital lobe
- primary visual cortex
List some specific types of agnosias, their impairments, and locations of lesions that cause them:
parietal lobe
Posterior association cortices – Parieto-Temporo-Occipital heteromodal cortex
Lesions (3x)
- agnosias
- apraxias
- impaired construction
• Inferior parietal lobule (above temporal lobe)
involved in
- short term memory storage (immediate attention span capacity)
Left sided lesion of the inferior parietal lobe
- reduced verbal attention span capacity
e. g., lower score on Digit Span Forward
o Right sided lesion of the inferior parietal lobe
reduced nonverbal attention span capacity
The xxx and the xxx function together to produce xxx – damage to either of these two regions can impair performance on tasks that involve xxx
- inferior parietal lobule
- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- working memory
Other left parietal lesions (3x)
- Language
On the xxx hemisphere, the xxx language areas are situated at the juncture of the xxx and xxx lobes, especially involving the xxx and xxx gyri.
Lesions to these regions (4x)
- left
- posterior
- temporal
- parietal
- supra marginal
- angular gyri
- impaired language comprehension
- paraphasic errors
- Alexia
- agraphia
Other parietal lesions
- Praxis
Left parietal lesions (2x)
- impaired ability to communicate in hand gestures or to comprehend other people’s hand gestures
- errors in making sequential hand movements
Other left parietal lesion
- arithmetic
left inferior parietal lesions (1x)
- acalculia
Other right parietal lesions
o Attention/awareness (2x)
- left hemispatial neglect syndrome (i.e., impaired attention to the left side
- anosognosia (i.e., impaired attention to the functional status of one’s own bodily or mental systems)
other right parietal lesions
- praxis
- dressing apraxia
temporal lobes
are concerned with (2x +i.e. 2x)
- hearing
- related functions
- auditory memory storage
- complex auditory perceptual organization
central auditory processing
is located at …
- superior temporal cortex
lesions in superior temporal cortex
(1x)
left:
Right:
- auditory agnosias
- left: recognition of words
- right: recognition of nonverbal sounds
language comprehension is located at
- area
- location
Wernicke’s area
left superior lateral temporal lobe
lesions in Wernicke’s area
- syndrome
- explain
- aware of deficit / not aware?
Wernicke’s aphasia
xxx (i.e., recalling a word associated with a concept or object) depends on the integrity of the xxx and xxx lobe
- semantic association
- left inferior lateral temporal lobe
- left anterior lateral temporal lobe
lesions to left inferior + anterior lateral temporal lobe = semantic association
- syndrome
- 2x tests
- anomic aphasia
- poor confrontation naming
- poor semantic fluency tests
Right temporal lobe governs xxx and xxx
- nonverbal expression
- comprehension
Right lateral temporal lesions
2x
- loss of musical aptitude
- poor comprehension of facial expressions (social-emotional agnosia/expressive agnosia)
- impaired recognition of familiar people or places (prosopagnosia)
Memory acquisition (learning) involves the xxx
- medial temporal lobe
Hippocampal formation consists of xxx (3x)
- hippocampus
- dentate gyrus
- subiculum (“support” - part of limbic system, responsible for memory retrieval + spatial encoding)
Hippocampal complex consists of the xxx + xxx (xx, xx)
- hippocampal formation
- parahippocampal gyrus
parahippocampal gyrus (entorhinal cortex + perirhinal cortex)
medial temporal lobe
is involved in the acquisition of …
xxx (xx)
factual knowledge (declarative memory)
procedural memory is acquired through xxx
frontal-subcortical circuits
memory encoding =
rapid process
bringing in hippocampus to form new long-term memory
memory consolidation =
slow process
removing hippocampus from an old long-term memory
xxx information from all xxx association cortices feeds into the xxx temporal lobe, which makes the xxx a hub for xxx different xxx aspects of newly learned information together in a single memory, along with the xxx thoughts and emotions about the new information.
- sensory
- sensory
- medial
- hippocampal formation
- binding
- sensory
- associated
The xxx is activated when xxx newly learned (and weakly consolidated) memories, which in turn activates the various regions of xxx association cortex that all come together to bring a complete memory to conscious awareness.
- hippocampal formation
- retrieving
- sensory
It is theorized that during the process of xxx the regions of association cortex pertinent to a specific memory gradually form xxx connections between one another over time, eventually removing (but not necessarily completely removing) the memory’s connections from the hippocampus and eliminating the need for the hippocampus to xxx when xxx the fully consolidated memory.
- consolidation
- direct
- activate
- retrieving
Alzheimer’s disease loses his xxx memories first and retains his xxx memories the longest – the degenerating xxx isn’t involved in the xxx memories.
However, this is not a perfect theory because some studies have shown that the xxx activate when retrieving some old memories, particularly xxx memories.
- newest
- oldest
- hippocampus
- oldest
- medial temporal lobe
- autobiographical
Medial temporal lobe verbal/nonverbal lateralization:
- Left hippocampal complex lesions
impaired learning of verbal information
- names
- verbal facts
Medial temporal lobe verbal/nonverbal lateralization:
- Right hippocampal complex lesions
impaired learning of nonverbal information
- new faces
- geographical routes
- melodies
- spatial information
The amygdala is involved in xxx and the xxx
It is also involved in processing xxx and xxx of new memories.
- fear conditioning
- experience of fear
+
- processing reward
- processing emotional aspects of new memories
lesions in amygdala
- decreased ability to experience fear
frontal lobe structures
1x
(3x)
(3x)
- primary motor cortex (precentral)
- premotor area (premotor)
- supplementary area (premotor)
- broca’s area (premotor)
- ventromedial prefrontal cortex (prefrontal)
- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (prefrontal)
- medial prefrontal cortex (prefrontal)
lesions in primary motor cortex
- contralateral motor weakness/paralysis
The primary motor cortex is necessary to carry out xxx, xxx movements.
A xxx xxx to move activates the xxx.
However, the movement is xxx by xxx processing that involves signals from the xxx, xxx, and xxx.
One purpose of this modulation by xxx structures is to xxx sensory feedback with an ongoing xxx.
- purposeful
- volitional
- conscious decision
- primary motor cortex
- modulated
- non-conscious
- basal ganglia
- cerebellum
- thalamus
- subcortical
- integrate
- movement
premotor area and supplementary motor area; these are involved in xxx purposeful, volitional movements and xxx those plans up to the xxx for xxx.
- planning
- sending
- primary motor cortex
- execution
The premotor area xxx input from xxx motor modulation structures and xxx it up to the xxx
- receives
- subcortical
- sends
- primary motor cortex
premotor area lesions
- failure to initiate or maintain a conscious movement [bradykinesia - decrease in motion; akinesia - lack of motion] (clumsiness, inaccuracy, instability, imbalance, tremor, lack of coordination)
- perseveration of conscious movements
The supplementary motor area xxx the xxx movement xxx from the behavioral xxx and organizes them into a xxx movement program that is necessary to xxx a consciously determined xxx.
- selects
- basic
- programs
- repertoire
- complex
- achieve
- goal
lesions in supplementary motor area
apraxia
Broca’s area represents the xxx hemisphere xxx division for xxx xxx
- left
- premotor
- speech production
broca’s area lesion
- poor planning of speech content
- apraxia of speech (i.e., dysfluent speech)
The right hemisphere xxx region that is homologous to Broca’s area it responsible for xxx and xxx and xxx aspects of communication (also known as xxx xxx)
- premotor
- selecting
- planning
- nonverbal
- paralinguistic communication
right hemisphere Lesions (area homologous to broca’s)
- decreased prosody of speech (i.e., monotone speech)
- inability to convey an emotional tone of voice
- decreased gesturing
Prefrontal division
This is the location where information about the xxx environment (from xxx association cortices) xxx with information about the xxx environment
(i.e., basic drives and emotions; from the limbic system)
- external
- sensory
- integrates
- internal
prefrontal division (3x)
- ventromedial prefrontal cortex
- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- medial prefrontal cortex
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
plays key role in (2x)
- impulse control
- regulation and maintenance of set + ongoing behavior
lesions in ventromedial prefrontal cortex
- disinhibition
- aggressive outbursts (amygdala)
- sexual promiscuity (hypothalamus)
- impaired social judgment
- impaired social cognition (incl, lack of empathy
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in
- higher order control / regulation / integration of cognotive activities
(executive cognitive functions)
Medial prefrontal cortex governs
the experience of emotional drive, or motivation
lesion in medial prefrontal cortex
apathy
major component of medial prefrontal cortex =
anterior cingulate cortex
anterior cingulate cortex
is involved in
- directing attention
- monitoring for errors while performing a task.
- also a component of Papez circuit for memory processing.
Prefrontal cortex roles in learning and memory
Left prefrontal structures are specialized for retrieval of xxx and encoding of xxx
- semantic memory (general knowledge)
- incoming information into episodic memory
Prefrontal cortex roles in learning and memory
Right prefrontal structures are specialized for retrieval of
episodic memory (specific unique events)
…not involved in encoding.
…the right hemisphere’s specialization in processing the whole context.
Memory retrieval (i.e., free recall) is essentially an xxx
executive function
- a goal (i.e., to provide information requested by the examiner)
- conscious execution of a mental process to achieve that goal (i.e., access memory storage, search for, and select the memory that will accomplish the goal).
- strategy selection in order to achieve the goal of retrieving the memory
strategy selection = executive function.
prospective memory
remember to do something
source memory
remembering the source of learned information
memory for timeframes
ability to situate autobiographical memories accurately in the timeline of one’s own life.
Prefrontal cortex roles in attention
6x
- Directing, shifting, and sustaining attention
- Increasing vigilance when necessary (e.g., reflected in the CPT ISI Change score)
- Works together with the parietal cortex to engage working memory
- Active concentration on novel problems, which is essentially a working memory process
- Resisting distraction (i.e., shifting attention away from interferences)
- Dividing attention when multitasking
papez circuit
hippocampus
mammillary bodies (via fornix)
anterior nucleus of the thalamus (via mammillothalamic tract)
cinguate gyrus
hippocampus (via cingulum and Parahippocampal gyrus)
aphasias
left parietal lesions
dysfunction of constructional abilities
- errors from oversimplified construction of details; Parieto-temporo-occipital cortex
language
- Wernicke’s aphasia
- paraphasic errors (posterior areas)
- alexia (diff reading)
- agraphia (diff writing)
praxis
- apraxia (ideomotor, ideational apraxia)
arithmetic
- acalculia
right parietal lesions
dysfunction of constructional abilities
- errors resulting from poor placement of component parts in relation to one another
- overelaboration of details
- inattention to left half
praxis
- dressing apraxia
attention/awareness
- left hemispatial neglect
- anosognosia
