Neuro physiology Flashcards
What does the ANS regulate
Visceral functions such as:
arterial pressure
Gastrointestinal activity
Urinary bladder control
Sweating
Body temperature
What is the brain stem reticular substance?
Control center of the ANS, located along the tractus solitarius in the medulla, pons, and mesencephalon.
Controls arterial pressure, HR, glandular secretion, gastrointestinal peristalsis, urinary bladder contraction
The hypothalamus, a control center of the ANS, controls what?
Influences brain stem centers and autonomic functions
Regulates body temperature, salivation, gastrointestinal activity, bladder emptying
Effects of brain stem transection above midpontine level
Basal control of arterial pressure remains, but higher modulation is lost
Effect of brain stem transection below medulla
Arterial pressure drops significantly
Dead?
ANS is activated which areas of the brain?
Brain stem and hypothalamus
Cerebral cortex (especially limbic cortex) can influence autonomic control by sending signals to lower centers
ANS operates subconscious control of ________ _________
Visceral organs
Sensory signals from visceral organs can trigger ______ _________ in autonomic ganglia, brain stem, or hypothalamus
Reflex responses
Subdivisions of the Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
What does SNS do?
Prepares body for “fight or flight” responses
What does parasympathetic nervous system do?
Controls “rest and digest” functions, promoting relaxation and conservation of energy
Two pathways of the SNS
Paravertebral sympathetic chain: interconnected ganglia BESIDE the spinal column
Pre vertebral ganglia: celiac, superior mesenterio, aorticorenal, inferior mesenteric, and hypogastric ganglia.
Sympathetic nerve origin
Nerve fibers originate between T1-L2 segments of spinal cord.
Enter the sympathetic chain before traveling to target organs
Sympathetic neuron types (2)
Preganglionic neurons: originate in intermediolateral horn of spinal cord -> go to ganglion
Postganglionic neurons: synapse in ganglia and travel to target organ
Pathways of preganglionic fibers (3)
Synapse immediately in ganglion they enter
Travel up/down the chain to synapse in another ganglion
Pass through the chain to synapse in a peripheral ganglion
Distribution of sympathetic fibers: T1 fibers
To the head
Distribution of sympathetic fibers: T2
To the neck
Distribution of sympathetic fibers: T3-T6
To the thorax
Distribution of sympathetic fibers: T7-T11
To the abdomen
Distribution of sympathetic fibers: T12- L2
To the legs
SNS:
Some preganglionic fibers travel directly to the adrenal medullae and stimulate modified neurons to release _________ & _________ into the bloodstream
Norepinephrine and epinephrine
SNS vs PNS
Preganglionic axons in PNS are ________ than in the SNS
Longer
All preganglionic neurons are ____________ in both SNS and PNS
Cholinergic
Release acetylcholine
Cholinergic receptors:
Muscarinic: found on all effector cells targeted by postganglionic cholinergic neurons. USES G PROTEINS
Nicotinic: located in autonomic ganglia at synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNELS
Adrenergic receptors
Alpha receptors:
Alpha 1 and alpha 2 - linked to different G proteins
Beta receptors: beta 1, beta 2, beta 3
(Norepinephrine excites primarily alpha receptors, epinephrine excites alpha and beta)
Cholinergic neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
Adrenergic neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
PNS postganglionic neurons
Almost all fibers are cholinergic
SNS postganglionic neurons
Most fibers and Adrenergic
EXCEPT, fibers to sweat glands and some blood vessels are cholinergic
SNS stimulation:
Stimulation of _________ ___________ lasts longer than direct sympathetic stimulation
Adrenal medulla
Acetylcholine synthesis and breakdown
Produced in terminal endings and varicosities
Rapid breakdown by acetylcholinesterase into acetate and choline after release
Norepinephrine synthesis and breakdown
Begins in axon terminal and finishes in secretory vesicles
Conversion: tyrosine -> dopa -> dopamine -> norepinephrine-> epinephrine
Breakdown: reuptake into nerve endings (50-80%)
Diffusion into surrounding fluids
Enzyme destruction (monoamine oxidase)
ANS receptors: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine binding to effector cells causes __________ ____________ in receptor protein
Conformational changes
Conformational changes in receptor proteins can cause excitation or inhibition through which 2 mechanisms
Ion channel changes: alters membrane permeability
Enzyme activation: activates/inactivates enzymes inside the cell (adenylyl ciclase -> cAMP)
Neurons: A typical neuron receives signals through synapses on the _________ and soma and sends output signals via a single axon
dendrites
Neurons: Signals pass in a __________ across synapses, from theaxonof one neuron to thedendritesof the subsequent neuron
one-way direction (unidirectional)
Neurons: Information is carried asnerve impulses(action potentials) through sequential neurons and impulses can be:
1.
2.
3.
- Blockedbetween neurons
- Transformedinto repetitive impulses
- Integratedwith other impulses for complex patterns
Synapses
Junction between neurons, allows signal transfer and controls direction of signal flow (Some synapses transmit signals readily, while others offer resistance)
Synapses: Facilitatory vs. Inhibitory
Facilitatory signalscan enhance transmission
Inhibitory signalscan reduce or block transmission
What is an axon?
Extends from soma to subsequent nerves, carrying output signals
What is the soma?
Cell body of a neuron
Synaptic transmission: Calcium Channels & Neurotransmitter Release:
Depolarization opens voltage-gated calcium channels
Calcium influx triggers neurotransmitter release from vesicles
What are dendrites?
: Branch out from the soma with up to 200,000 presynaptic terminals
Synaptic transmission: What are presynaptic terminals?
Form synapses with other neurons
Can beexcitatory(stimulating) orinhibitory(blocking)
What is the difference between inotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors?
Ionotropic Receptors: Directly open ion channels
Metabotropic Receptors: Activate second messengers to alter cell functions
Second Messanger Systems: (G-Proteins)
Activation Process: G protein binds GTP, and separates into active components
Functions:
Open ion channels for prolonged effects
ActivatecAMPorcGMPto alter cell activity
Activate enzymes for specific cellular functions
Triggergene transcription, leading to long-term changes
Types of ion channels:
Cation Channels: Allow sodium (Na+), sometimes potassium (K+) or calcium (Ca2+) influx;excitatory
Anion Channels: Primarily allow chloride (Cl-) ions influx;inhibitory
Channel Selectivity: Determined by size, shape, and charge of the channel
Mechanism of Excitation:
- Opening Sodium Channels: Allows positive ions to enter, increasing membrane potential toward threshold
- Reduced Chloride or Potassium Conductance:
Chloride: Less negative ions enter
Potassium: Fewer positive ions leave
Both actions make the inside of the cell more positive - Metabolic Changes:
Increase excitatory receptors or decrease inhibitory receptors on the membrane
Chemical Synapses:
(Predominant in the brain and CNS)
Mechanism: Presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters to excite, inhibit, or modify the postsynaptic neuron
One-Way Conduction: unidirectional supporting actions like sensation and motor control
Ex: Acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, serotonin, glutamate
Mechanisms of Inhibition:
- Opening Chloride Channels: Negative ions flow in, making the cell interior more negative
- Increased Potassium Conductance: Positive ions exit, further increasing negativity inside
- Enzyme Activation: Alters cellular functions to boost inhibition and reduce excitation
Electrical Synapses:
(Cytoplasms of adjacent cells connected bygap junctions)
Mechanism: Gap junctions allow free movement of ions and, therefore, electrical charge
Bidirectional Transmission: Allows coordinated activity across interconnected neuron groups
Common incardiacandsmooth muscle
Small-Molecule, Rapidly Acting Transmitters:
Triggeracute responseslike sensory and motor signals
Synthesized in thecytosol of presynaptic terminalsand stored inrecycled vesicles
Example:Acetylcholine (synthesized from acetyl CoA and choline, broken down by cholinesterase in the synaptic cleft)
RMP: ___mV
-65
Neuropeptides, Slowly Acting Transmitters:
Induceprolonged effects(e.g., receptor number changes, long-term synapse modifications)
Synthesized in thecell bodyand transported to nerve terminals
Released vesicles arenot recycled; neuropeptides are more potent but released in smaller quantities
Co-Transmission:
Some neurons store both types in the same or separate vesicles, releasing them simultaneously or in sequence
(Small-molecule and neuropetides)
Ion Concentrations:
(Na, K, Cl)
HighNa+outside, low inside
HighK+inside, low outside
Cl-high outside, low inside due to the negative membrane potential
Does EPSP raise or decrease membrane potential?
Na+ Influxraises membrane potential (e.g., -65 mV to -45 mV)
Threshold for action potential ~ -45 mV
Neuronal Excitation: Spatial Summation
Multiple presynaptic terminals fire simultaneously
Neuronal Excitation: Temporal Summation
Repeated firing of one terminal over time
Neuronal Excitation: Dendritic Transmission
Primarily byelectronic conduction; no action potentials
Closer synapses to soma have a greater effect
GABA opens ______ channels in the terminal, reducing the excitatory effect by counteracting Na+ influx
Cl-
What are two ways for IPSP to occur?
- Chloride Channels: Open to allow Cl- influx, making the interior more negative
- Potassium Channels: Open for K+ efflux, also increasing intracellular negativity
Summation of IPSP and EPSP:
IPSPs counteract EPSPs; they can partially or fully cancel each other
If excitatory potential nears but doesn’t reach threshold, the neuron isfacilitated, making it more responsive to future excitatory inputs
What is hyperpolarization
moving membrane potential further from threshold (towards -70 mV)
What is post synaptic fatigue?
Repetitive stimulation of excitatory synapses leads to a decrease in postsynaptic neuron firing over time
Mechanism: Depletion of neurotransmitter stores, receptor inactivation, and abnormal ion concentrations
Prevents overexcitation, such as in epileptic seizures
What is synaptic delay and how many milliseconds is it?
Time taken for neurotransmitter release, diffusion, receptor binding, and initiation of an action potential
Approximately 0.5 milliseconds
What are the three factors affecting neuronal delay?
- pH levels:
Alkalosis- increases excitability (may trigger seizures)
Acidosis- decreases excitability (induce coma) - O2 supply: Lack of oxygen for a few seconds leads to neuron in-excitability, causing unconsciousness
- Drugs: Stimulants (e.g., caffeine) lower excitation thresholds, increasing excitability
Anesthetics raise excitation thresholds, decreasing excitability
Sensation: Sensory Information Pathway:
Sensory data from receptors is transmitted throughperipheral nervesto the CNS
Sensation: Initiation of Nervous System Activities:
Most activities are triggered bysensory experiences
Sensory input can lead toimmediate responsesor bestored as memoriesfor future reactions
Sensation: what five areas is information relayed to?
- Spinal Cord: Initial processing and reflexes
- Reticular Substance: Located in the medulla, pons, and midbrain
- Cerebellum: Coordinates fine motor control
- Thalamus: Acts as a sensory relay station
- Cerebral Cortex: Integrates sensory information for perception and decision-making
Motor function: Primary role of the nervous system is to control bodily functions by regulating:
Skeletal Muscle Contraction: Enables movement
Smooth Muscle Contraction: Manages internal organ function
Secretion of Substances: Activates exocrine and endocrine glands
Motor function: What are the effectors in the nervous system?
Muscles and glands are theeffectors, carrying out responses based on nerve signals
What are the five levels of control for skeletal muscles?
- Spinal Cord: Manages reflexive, automatic responses
- Reticular Substance: Controls arousal and involuntary motor functions
- Basal Ganglia: Facilitates smooth voluntary movements
- Cerebellum: Refines coordination and balance
- Motor Cortex: Plans and initiates complex voluntary movements
What are the three main divisions of the CNS?
Spinal cord, subcortical (lower brain level), cortical (higher brain level)
What is the spinal cord level responsible for?
Functions independently for many reflexes and movements
Ex:
Walking movements, withdrawal reflexes(from painful stimuli), postural reflexes(supporting body against gravity), autonomic reflexes(control of blood vessels, digestion, and excretion)
What is the subcortical level responsible for?
Manages subconscious and autonomic functions
Includes medulla, pons, mesencephalon, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum, and basal ganglia
Controlsemotional responses(e.g., anger, pleasure) andbasic life functions
What is the higher brain responsible for?
Acts as a largememory storehouse
Essential forthought processesand precise control over lower brain functions
Works inassociationwith lower centers, which initiate wakefulness and access to memories
What percent of sensory information is discarded as irrelevant or unimportant?
99%
What is integrative function?
The process of filtering, channeling, and directing sensory information to evoke targeted responses
Where is most sensory information is stored for future use?
Cerebral cortex
What do mechanoreceptors detect?
Detectmechanical compressionorstretchingin tissues
What is synaptic facilitation?
Repeated signal transmissionstrengthens synapses, making them more capable of transmitting similar signals in the future
It enables memories to be recalled even without sensory input