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VetMed Year 1 > NEU 1 > Flashcards

NEU 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Name the 2 divisions of the nervous system.

A

CNS - brain and spinal cord

PNS - cranial nerves and spinal nerves, trunks of autonomous nerves, enteric nervous system

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2
Q

Name the divisions of the PNS

A

Somatic and autonomic

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3
Q

Name the divisons of the autonomic system

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

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4
Q

Describe the somatic nervous system

A
  • Under voluntary control
  • Muscle movements
  • Motor nerve cell body is contained in the spinal cord
  • Does not synapse until at the muscle
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5
Q

Describe the autonomic nervous system

A
  • Involuntary control
  • Regulation of glandular secretions, gut motility etc
  • Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic system
  • Alwyas has a synapse before it reaches muscle
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6
Q

State the general functions of the nervous system

A

Sensory detection, information processing, behaviour, motor function

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7
Q

Describe the distribution of grey matter in the spinal cord

A

Mainly central and forms a butterfly shape

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8
Q

Describe the distribution of grey matter in the brain

A

Grey matter is peripheral (in the cortex)

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9
Q

Describe peripheral nervous system plexi

A
  • Formed by peripheral nerves which come from spinal nerves
  • Innervation of the limbs from ventral branches of spinal nerves
  • Brachial plexus = forelimb
  • Lumbosacral plexus = hindlimb
  • nerve cells located in ganglia (groups of nerve cells outside CNS) and in CNS (nuclei of cranial nerves or in ventral and lateral horn of spinal cord)
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10
Q

Describe the composisiton of the myelin sheath

A

Mainly phospholipids

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11
Q

Describe the general neural structure

A
  • Neurons - actual conducting cells
    Neuroglia - supporting/maintaining cells, outnumber neurons
  • Insulation - lipid sheaths around inflow/outflow, myelin
  • No connective tissue in CNS - no obvious boundaries, blood vessels supported by neuroglia
  • Connective tissue sheaths in PNS
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12
Q

List the various junctions occuring between neurons and other excitable tissues

A

Synapses, neuromuscular junctions, neuroglandular junctions

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13
Q

List the functional types of neurons occuring in the nervous system

A
  • Afferent

- Efferent

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14
Q

Describe the different macroglia

A
  • Astrocytes - control local environment of CNS
  • Satellite cells - similar to astrocytes
  • Oligodendrocytes - insulators of CNS
  • Schwann cells - insulators of PNS
  • Ependymal cells - make CSF and form blood -CSF barrier
  • Radial glia - progenitor cells
  • Enteric glia - found in GIT ganglia
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15
Q

List the different microglia

A
  • Specialised macrophages
  • Mobile
  • Control inflammation
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16
Q

Describe the general structure of neurones.

A
  • large cells consisting of cell body (soma, perikaryon) and processes (poles) which include a single axon and one or more dendrites
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17
Q

Describe synapses

A
  • Neuron to neuron
  • Can be excitatory or inhibitory
  • Only in grey matter
  • Constantly made and destroyed (memory)
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18
Q

Describe neuromuscular junctions

A
  • Neuron to muscle cells

- Always excitatory in case of skeletal muscle

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19
Q

Describe neuroglandular junctions

A
  • Neuron to glandular cells

- Most secretory cells

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20
Q

List the different structural neurons found in the nervous system

A

Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar, interneurons

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21
Q

Describe mulipolar neurons

A
  • single axon and mulitple dendrites
  • Most comon
  • Single outflow, multiple inputs
  • Groups of these nerve cell bodies in CNS termed nuclei
  • Tend to group together based on function
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22
Q

Describe bipolar neurons

A
  • single axon, single dendrite
  • Relatively uncommon
  • Restricted to mainly special sensory pathways
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23
Q

Describe unipolar neurons

A
  • single process leaves the cell and divides into 2
  • Structurally both processes resemble acons
  • Functionally one acts as dendrite, the other as true axon
  • GSE - usually peripheral sensory
  • Cell bodies grouped together in ganglia
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24
Q

Describe interneurons

A
  • Association between one point of CNS and another
  • Never leave CNS
  • Most numerous type of neurons
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25
Q

What is a ganglion and what is its function?

A
  • Collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
  • Can be site for synapses (GVE - ANS)
  • Cell bodies (general afferent)
  • general swapping of nerve fibres (middle cervical ganglion particularly
  • Exception is part of 5th cranial nerve which has some of its sensory cell bodies in the nucleus rather than a PNS ganlion
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26
Q

What are the functional components of spinal nerves?

A

All are mixed i.e. sensory and motor

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27
Q

What are the functional components of cranial nerves?

A

Are either purely sensory, purely motor or mixed

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28
Q

What are the types general afferent fibres?

A

GSA - general somatic: somatic pain, temperature, touch
GPA - general proprioceptive: kinaesthesia, proprioception
GVA - general visceral: visceral sensation including baroreceptors

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29
Q

What are the types of special afferent fibres?

A

SSA - special somatic: vision and hearing
SPA - special proprioceptive: balance
SVA - special visceral: tast and olfaction

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30
Q

Where is the outflow for sympathetic nerves?

A
  • spinal outflow T1 to L3
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31
Q

Where is the outflow for parasympathetic nerves?

A

Outflow in cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, 10 and sacral nerve

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32
Q

Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

A
  • Ends in the filum terminale - meninges fused to a fine cord
  • 2 intumescenses with cell bodies for motor outflows (cervical and lumbar intumescences)
  • Is a continuation of the medulla
  • Some medullary nuclei enter to C1 level (spinal nucleus of V)
  • Passes through the intervertebral foramen to exit spine as nerve
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33
Q

Describe the origins of from the spinal cord.

A
  • Spinal cord and spinal nerves are segmental and are named by the segment (e.g. C4, T3)
  • Exit at the intervertebral foraminae
  • Link to ascending and descending columns of white matter
  • Tracts link the brain with the PNS
  • Named by origin-destination e.g. spinothalamic tract (start at spine, end in thalamus)
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34
Q

Describe the typical structure of the spinal cord

A
  • Dorsal median septum and ventral median fissure
  • White matter (peripheral) made up of ascending and descending tracts
  • Grey matter (central) contains neurons and synapses
  • Central canal continuous with ventricles in the brain
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35
Q

Describe the exit of nerves from the spinal cord

A
  • Exit via dorsal or ventral roots
  • Dorsal is afferent, larger and contains dorsal root ganglion
  • Ventral is efferent
  • These unite near the intervertebral foramen to make a spinal nerve and leave together
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36
Q

Describe what happens to the nerve after it has left the spinal cord.

A
  • Spinal nerve branches into rami just outside intervertebral foramen
  • Dorsal ramus goes to dorsal part of body
  • Ventral ramus goes to ventral part of body (incuding limbs)
  • Ventral is larger
  • Both are mixed fibres (efferent and afferent)
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37
Q

Describe where motor neurones are situated in the spinal cord

A
  • Cell body in ventral horn of grey matter of spinal cord

- Axon leaves via ventral root, into spinal nerve, then D/V rami

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38
Q

Describe where sensory neurones are situated in the spinal cord

A
  • Cell body in dorsal root ganglion (pseudounipolar cell)
  • Periperal process from skin etc via D.V rami
  • Via dorsal root to dorsal root ganglion
  • Central process - dorsal root to dorsal horn of grey matter or spinal cord
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39
Q

Describe spinal cord termination

A
  • Dogs: L6/7, Cats S3, Horse S1, Cattle L7
  • After this cauda equina filld vertebral canal
  • Space around nerves is epidural space
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40
Q

Describe the enteric nervous system

A
  • Smooth muscle of GIT controlled by 2 local nerve plexi
  • Interspaced between/in smooth muscle of GIT
  • Operate automatically - controls motility and local hormone reflexes
  • Modified by autonomic nervous system
  • Stressed animals often get diarrhoea - more forceful contractions rather than mixing contractions
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41
Q

Give the levels of the GIT and what is contained in these

A
  • Lumen/food
  • Mucosa - epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa
  • Submucosa - Meissner’s (submucosal) plexus
  • Muscularis propria - circular muscle, Auerbach’s (myenteric) plexus, longitudinal muscle
  • Serosa
42
Q

List the image properties of common tissue types on T1 MRI

A 
Cortical bone - black
Fat- white
Water/fluid - black
Soft tissue - grey
Pathology - grey
43
Q

List the image properties of common tissue types on T2 MRI

A 
Cortical bone - black
Fat - white
Water/fluid - white
Soft tissue - grey
Pathology - white
44
Q

Describe the generation and transmission of an action potential

A
  • Opening of gated channels (neuromediator, physical force, ligand gated, voltage gated)
  • Leads to influx of positive ions (usually Na+ ions) via gated channels, Na+/K+ ATPase pump stops = no outflow of Na+ = depolarisation of membrane
  • Reaches treshold potential (-50mV)
45
Q

Describe how the resting membrane potential is reached

A
  • Potassium/sodium antiporters present in membrane of animal cells
  • Sodium in, potassium out (3 out for 2 in)
  • Large anions present in cell = negative membrane potential (-70mV)
  • Leak channels allow outflow of ions, mostly potassium
46
Q

Describe ligand gated channels

A
  • Can have rapid or slow synaptic transmission
  • Rapid: nicotinic Ach receptor, inotropic glutamate receptors, gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor. Are faster and direct
  • Slow: Muscarinic Ach receptor, alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, metabotropic glutamate receptors. Are slow and indirect
47
Q

Descrieb action potential propagation

A
  • Schwann cells protect axon
  • In myelinated AP propagates in saltatory manner - faste
  • In non-myelinated, AP propagated continuously
  • Refractory period ensures AP travels in one direction
  • Becomes progressively easier to produce an AP
48
Q

Describe how an action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters at a synpase.

A
  • Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open when AP at pre-synaptic knob
  • Ca2+ enter into cells (axon terminals)
  • Promote pre-synaptic vesicle exocytosis
  • Released NTs interact with their receptors (ligand gated channels) on the postsynaptic cell (can be organ e.g. muscle or another neuron) to allow influx of Na+ and continue AP
49
Q

Explain the origins of the neural tube and how it differentiates

A
  • Develops from the nerual plate
  • Plate invaginates along axis = neural groove and fold either side
  • Folds move together and fuse
  • Tube gives rise to tissues of CNS - brain rostrally and spinal cord caudally
  • Closure progresses antero-posteriorly
  • Once closed, meninges and vertebral structures develop around it
  • Series of expansions of neural tube give rise to internal spaces (ventricles and aqueducts) within different regions of the brain
50
Q

Where is CSF produced?

A

The choroid plexus - vascular proliferation of the ependymal layer in later 3rd and 4th ventricles

51
Q

What divisions of the brian are contained in the forebrain?

A

The telencephalon and diencephalon

52
Q

What divison of the brain is contained in the midbrain

A

The mesencephalon

53
Q

What divisions of the brain are contained in the hindbrain

A

The metencephalon and the myencephalon

54
Q

Describe the formation of the eyes

A
  • Intraembyronic mesoderm lateral to notochord and neural tube thickens
  • Forms longitudinal columns of paraxial mesoderm
  • Differentiation into notochord and paraxial mesoderm depends on inhibition of BMP4
  • Differentiation into intermediate and lateral plate mesoderm depnds on bone morphogenetic protein BMP4 and fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
  • Eyes form initial as bulges of lateral ventricles
  • Outer proportions invaginate, result in formatin of an optic cup and stalk
  • Retina produced by optic vesicle invaginating
55
Q

Describe the differentiation of the spinal cord during development

A
  • Neural canal indentates and deliniates dorsal and ventral columns
  • Notochord, floor plate and roof plate release signals to induce ventral (Shh) or dorsal (BMP4) cell types
  • Dependent on concentration gradient
  • Repression by Shh factors expressed dorsally
  • Cell movement restricted by F-cadhedrin in ventricular zone
  • Sensory in alar plate, motor in basa plate
  • White matter of SC from outer layer that develops from neural tube as axons grow into from brain, ganglia and SC
  • Dorsal horn fuses = median septum
  • Ventral horn expands = ventral fissure
56
Q

What is differentiation into notochord and paraxia mesoderm dependent on?

A

Inhibition of BMP4

57
Q

What is differentiation into intermediate and lateral plate mesoderm dependent on?

A

BMP4 and FGF

58
Q

Describe the myelination of nerve fibres

A
  • In CNS oligodendroglia wrap around multiple axons
  • In periphery, Schwann cells wrap around 1 axon
  • Schwann cells derived fro neural crest cells
  • Wrap around developing axons
  • Nodes Ranvier breaks in myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells
  • During formation of multiple layer, cytoplasm is withdrawn, plasma membranes fuse to form mesaxon that makes up myelin sheath
  • Not compelte until after birth
59
Q

What are the layers of the cerebral cortex going outside in?

A

Molecular, external granular, external pyramidal, internal granular, external pyramidal, multiform thalamic, subcortical

60
Q

Describe the structure of a nerve

A
  • Composed of several bundles of nerve axons
  • Held together by connective tissue
  • Most nerves contain sensory and motor fibres
  • Epineurium (outermost)
  • Perineurium (surrounds each fascicle)
  • Endoneurium (around each nerve fibre)
61
Q

Describe the structure of neurones

A
  • Cell body: nutritional centre and large molecule production
  • Dendrites: receptive area for impulse transmission
  • Axons: conduct impulse away from cell body
  • Axoplasm: axon’s cytoplasm
  • Axolemma: axon’s membrane
  • Neurolemma: outermost layer of nerve fibres in the PNS
  • Neurones connected to each other by synaptic junctions or to organs
  • Presynaptic knobs contain vesicles of NTs
62
Q

Describe the function of neurons

A
  • Transmit impulses either to or from the CNS
  • Sensory: from sensory receptors to CNS
  • Association neurons: in CNS, bridge sensory and motor neurons
  • Motor: out of CNS to effectors
63
Q

Describe ependymal cells and their function

A
  • Allow flow of CSF within centra canals
  • Line cavities of CNS
  • Produce CSF in ventricles by filtering blood form capillaries
  • Beat cilia to help circulate CSF
64
Q

Describe astrocytes and their function

A
  • Form junctions between capillaries and neurons
  • Form blood brain barrier
  • Have processes that terminate in end-feet surrounding capillaries of CNS
  • Feet involved in formation of tight junctions between epithelial cells in capillaries
  • Maintain proper ionic environment, express ion channels
65
Q

Describe oligodendrocytes and their function

A
  • Wrap around several axons
  • Form white matter
  • Similar properties to Schwann cells
66
Q

Describe microglia and their function

A
  • Cleaning cells
  • Phagocytose pathogens and cellular debris
  • Form immune system of the brain and spinal cord
67
Q

List the supporting cells of the PNS

A
  • Schwann cells
  • Satellite cells
  • Type A
  • Type B
  • Type C
68
Q

List the supporting cells of the CNS

A
  • Oligodendrocytes
  • Astrocytes
  • Microglia
  • Ependymal
69
Q

Describe association neurons

A
  • Located in CNS
  • Provide direct (reflex arcs) or indirect (via brain structures)
  • Connection between sensory and motor neurons, as well as between selves
70
Q

Describe motor neurons

A
  • Conduct impulses out of CNS
  • Somatic: reflex and voluntary control of skeletal muscle
  • Autonomic: involuntary, cell bodies outside CNS regrouped in ganglia
  • Also subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
71
Q

Describe the roles of synapses and neurotransmitters involved in the generation of a nerve impulse

A
  • Signal transmission between 2 neurons
  • Nerve impulse transmitted from presynaptic cell to postsynaptic cells
  • Nerve impulse transmitted via neurotransmitters
  • must be released to interact with specific receptors on postsynpatic membrane
72
Q

Describe how a nerve impusle is transmitted across a synapse

A
  • Action potential reaches presynaptic knob
  • Opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
  • Influx of calciium triggers exocytosis of NT by fusing vesicles with membrane
  • NT travels across cleft and binds to ligand gated ion channels
  • Can be inhibitory or excitatory
  • Enzymes break down neurotransmitters to be repackaged into vesicles in the presynaptic knob
73
Q

Describe the kiss and run model

A
  • Limited supply of NTs - need to be controlled
  • When AP arrives, only small amount of NTs are released
  • Vesicle fuses but not fully, allowing some neurotransmitters to escape
  • If strong stimulus, then high frequency of APs so vesicles fuse more frequently, more NT released, more frequent APs on postsynaptic side
74
Q

Give examples of biological controls of neurotransmitters action

A
  • Once released, control of NTs is central
  • Degradation in synaptic cleft by enzymes
  • Receptor mediated endocytosis and destruction by intracellular endosomes or lysosomes
  • Degradation: acetylcholinesterase breaks down Ach into acetyl and choline
  • Receptor mediate endocytosis: usually clathrin endocytosis, clathrin molecules provide coat, adaptor proteins provide link between membrane and coat, dynamin encircles neck of bud and pinches off vesicles, clathrin release from membrane vesicle activated by chaperones, clathrin polymerised on cell membrane
75
Q

Define a motor unit

A

A single motor axon of a motor neuron and all of the corresponding muscle fibres it innervates. A single axon can innervate multiple muscle cells

76
Q

Explain the process of motor unit recruitment

A
  • Slow MUs tend to be smaller and are recruited first during normal exercise
  • During ballistic locomotion faster MUs can be recruited initially
77
Q

Give an overview of how motor unit action potentials are measured

A
  • Motor unit action potential can be used to distinguish a myopathy from neuropathy
  • Based upon size, shape and recruitment pattern
  • Electromyography
  • Needle electrode
  • Detects electrical action potential generated by muscle cells
  • Insertional activity provides information about state of muscle and its innervating nerve
78
Q

Explain the functin of stretch and tension receptors in tendon and muscle

A
  • Weakest part of MSK system is junction between tendon and muscle
  • Stretch and tension receptors send information to prevent overstretching and damage to this area
  • Muscle spinde detects dynamic and static changes in msucle length. Stretch on muscle causes refelx contraction
  • Golgi tendon organ monitors tension developed in muscle,, prevents damage during excessive force generation, stimulation results in reflex relaxation of muscle
79
Q

Explain how neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory

A
  • If NTs released open Na+ channels then are excitatory as Na+ enters and membrane depolarised
  • If NTs open Cl- channels then are inhibitory as influx of Cl- leads to hyperpolarisation of membrane making it more difficult for an action potential to be generated
80
Q

Explain how an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) can be generated

A
  • 1 presynaptic neuron releasing several vesicles containing NTs over a short period of time (temporal summation)
  • 2 or more presynaptic neurons releasing few pools of NTs over a short period of time (spatial summation)
81
Q

Give the different interneuronal networks

A

Diverging, converging and reverberating

82
Q

Describe a diverging interneuronal network

A
  • One neurone connected to several others which connect to more
  • Signals diverge and a single stimulus can activate multiple responses
83
Q

Describe a converging interneuronal network

A
  • One neurone receives signals from several others
  • Signals converge
  • Many stimuli cause single response
84
Q

Describe a reverberating interneuronal network

A
  • One axon sends an acons collateral to a previous neuron in the series
  • Series restimulated without a new external signal
  • Loop or echo circuit
85
Q

Describe the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles

A
  • AP opens Ca2+ channels, Ach released, Na+ channels open, muscle cell depolarised
  • Calcium in muscle stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Released when depolarised, muscle can contract
  • Excess sytolic Ca2+ frees actin from tropomyosin, can interact with myosin
  • Interact in presence of ATP
  • Skeletal muscle contracts
  • Resting conditions triggered by outward pumping of Ca2+ via ATPase channels but also passive Na+/Ca2+ exchanger
  • Active K+/Na+ antiport maintains final homeostasis
86
Q

describe the neuromuscular junction of smooth muscles

A
  • 1 neuron to several cells

- Synapses are loose

87
Q

Give the major classes of neurotransmitters

A

I - small NTs, mainly involved in nerve impulse generation

II - large NTs, released by NS into circulation

88
Q

Give the major divisions of the brain

A

Rostral to caudal: Telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon metencephalon, myencephalon

89
Q

Describe the structure and function of the brainstem

A
  • Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain
  • Efferent and afferent fibres pass through
  • Nuclei of cranial nerves
  • Forms floor of 4th ventricle
  • Location of respiratory, blood pressure and heart rate regulatory centres
  • Functions: hearing, balance, swallowing, masticatory musculature, mimic musculature, salication, parasympathetic
90
Q

Describe the structure and function of the hindbrain

A
  • Cerebellum, medulla and pons

- Functions: balance and coordinatin of movement

91
Q

List the components of the forebrain

A

Telencephalon, diencephalon, cerebral hemispheres

The diencephalon is the part of the brain between the hemispheres

92
Q

Describe the structure and function of the diencephalon

A
  • Thalamus - thymal gland, relay station for sensory information (all senses apart from olfaction)
  • Epithalamus - seasonal breeding
  • Hypothalamus (around 3rd ventricle)
93
Q

Describe the function of the hypothalamus

A
  • Hormonal regulation
  • Reproduction
  • Appetite
  • Fight/flight
  • Stress
94
Q

Describe the structure and function of the telencephalon

A
  • Cortex plus subcortical structures
  • Cortex: neocortex, paleocortex
  • Subcortical:
  • Basal ganglia: motor regulation
  • Paleocortex: olfatory sense
  • Archicortex: memory generation (spatial memory)
  • Neocortex: dominant part of cerebral cortex in mammals
95
Q

Give examples of inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters

A

Inhibitory: glycine, opens Cl- channels
Excitatory: ACh, opens Na+ channels

96
Q

Give the regions of the cortex and their functions

A

Frontal lobe: motor cortex
Parietal lobe: sensory cortex
Temporal lobe: hearing
Occipital lobe: vision

97
Q

Describe what a membrane potential is and how it is acheived

A
  • The potential difference between the inside of a cell and the outside
  • Established by the concentrations of K+ and Na+ ions, as well as large organic anions inside the cell
  • Potassium leak channels allow slow efflux of potassium, while the Na+/K+ ATPase pump removes 3Na+ from the cell and brings in 2K+
  • This maintains a negative membrane potential
98
Q

Describe how MP and AP are related together

A
  • An action potential is a membrane potential with a smaller potential difference
  • It is brought about by a stimulus that goes above the threshold
  • Sodium leaks channels open and potassium channels close
  • The membrane is depolarised (becomes more positive) and an electrical current passes along the cell membrane
99
Q

Describe what a refractory period is

A

The refractory period is the time in which an action potential can be generated while the membrane returns to its resting potential

100
Q

Explain what inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials are

A
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are ones that inihibit the generation of an action potential. This is done by opening Cl- channels to hypoerpolarise the cell and make it more difficult to acheive the threshold potential
  • An excitatory postsynaptic potential is one that majkes it easier for an aciton potential to be geenerated by depolarising the membrane by opening sodium channels

VetMed Year 1 (13 decks)

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